Argentine Army: Brown and Black Regiment

Brown and Black Regiment

The Regiment of Brown and Black (Pardos y Morenos) was a military unit of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata that participated in most of the military campaigns of the Argentine War of Independence until its dissolution in 1816 due to the Battle of Viluma. It was made up of soldiers from the castes of free mulattoes and freed blacks.

Uniform
The troops wore the uniform of the regiment consisting of a galley with a plume. Light blue jacket with bronze buttons and black collar and sleeves. Red sash and white pants with boots. They carried saber or flintlock rifle with bayonet. NCOs wore a red jacket with a white collar and sleeves.



May Revolution
Immediately after the May Revolution, on May 29, 1810, the First Government Junta of the nascent United Provinces of the Río de la Plata organized by decree the military units of Buenos Aires, raising veteran regiments of 1,116 squares to battalions of existing urban paid infantry militias. The Caste Battalion was also elevated to a Caste Regiment, but maintained its militia status.



By a decree issued on June 8, 1810, the Junta issued an order for the integration of the indigenous native companies that constituted the Battalion of Castes. This integration involved their incorporation into Regiments No. 2 Patricios (Patricians) and No. 3 Arribeños (Upstreamers), under the command of their existing officers. Consequently, the Regiment of Castas underwent a transformation and came to be recognized as the Pardos y Morenos (Brown and Black) Regiment. On June 19, 1810, the Junta appointed Martín Galain (1) as the lieutenant colonel and Miguel Estanislao Soler as the sergeant major of the regiment. (2)

A subsequent decree dated February 10, 1811, resulted in the renaming of the unit as the Regiment of Pardos y Morenos Patricios de Buenos Aires. Furthermore, another decree issued on October 4, 1811, bestowed upon the regiment the distinction of being classified as a veteran force. (3)



First Expedition to the Alto PerúOn June 14, the Junta issued an instruction to Juan José Castelli, a member, tasking him with assembling forces for the purpose of embarking on a military campaign to the interior provinces of the viceroyalty. This directive aimed to fulfill the mandate outlined in the Cabildo de Buenos Aires on May 25, which involved the formation of an army comprising 1,150 soldiers. Within this force were included 2 companies belonging to the Regiment of Pardos y Morenos.4 During its era, this assembled army was referred to as the Army of Peru or the Auxiliary Army of the Interior Provinces, but it is currently recognized more prominently as the Army of the North. The two caste companies advanced alongside the larger army through the regions of northern Argentina and Upper Peru, ultimately reaching the border of the Viceroyalty of Peru. On June 20, 1811, they actively participated in the pivotal Battle of Huaqui:

The officers belonging to the Pardos and Morenos Patricios companies from that particular capital city have not only conducted themselves with the customary honor displayed in such situations during the action, but they have also subsequently exhibited a profound demonstration of their resilience in the face of adversity. Their unwavering subordination, dedication to duty, and evident commitment to serving their country have been undeniable. It is my duty to strongly commend Your Excellency to acknowledge their virtues as an act of justice and as a gesture of gratitude that they rightfully merit. Letter to the Junta, de Antonio González Balcarce, July 31th, 1811.

After the defeat at Huaqui, the brown and brown companies withdrew with the army to Jujuy, where it was reorganized by the new commander Manuel Belgrano in 1812.




Liberation Expedition to Paraguay
On September 23, 1810, a contingent comprising 200 soldiers sourced from five infantry companies within the Buenos Aires garrison congregated at the encampment of San Nicolás de los Arroyos, among whom was a member with a brown complexion. This assembled force served as the nucleus for the Liberation Expedition to Paraguay, which was under the command of Manuel Belgrano. (5)

As they progressed through the Argentine Mesopotamia, the Brown (Pardos) Company operated within the 2nd Division, identifiable by its blue flag. Following the successful crossing of the Paraná River in the Misiones region, this company led the vanguard division and played an active role in the significant Battle of Paraguarí on January 19, 1811, as well as the consequential Battle of Tacuarí on March 9, 1811. Subsequent to the latter defeat, Belgrano retraced his steps across the Paraná River and established his headquarters in Candelaria. On March 21, 1811, he provided a comprehensive assessment of his forces, revealing that the Brown Company consisted of a captain, a lieutenant, three corporals, and a complement of 33 soldiers.

First Campaign to the Banda Oriental


In February 1811, 441 brown and brown soldiers sent from Buenos Aires under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Martín Galain, the 6th commander of the Brown and Brown Regiment, stationed themselves in Entre Ríos, on the western bank of the Uruguay River, with the mission of protect Belgrano's withdrawal from Paraguay and move the Banda Oriental. Those forces were in Santa Fe on January 9, 1811.
On February 28, 1811, the Creoles of the Banda Oriental insurrectioned against the viceroy, a fact known as the Grito de Asencio. Belgrano ordered Galain to cross the Uruguay River and take possession of Mercedes and Santo Domingo Soriano, who had declared themselves in favor of the Junta, for which he sent Soler with 50 brown and brown soldiers to position themselves in that town.7 A royalist squadron under the command of Juan Ángel Michelena entered the Negro River with 800 soldiers and intimated Soler's surrender. On April 4, 1811, the Combate de Soriano took place, which culminated in the triumph of Soler.
The revolutionary army under the command of Belgrano, which was returning from the Intendance of Paraguay and the Missions, crossed Mesopotamia and crossed the Uruguay River in Entre Ríos towards the Banda Oriental, where in April 1811 it established its headquarters in Mercedes:8 There the troops de Belgrano met with the eastern militias and the forces commanded by Rondeau.
The army advanced towards Montevideo and in the Second Division commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Agustín Sosa there were 450 men from the Pardos y Morenos Regiment. At the end of April Belgrano was replaced by Rondeau. After the triumph of José Artigas in the Battle of Las Piedras, the First Siege of Montevideo began on May 21, 1811, Rondeau arriving with the bulk of the troops on June 1 (including the brown and brown ones). On July 15, 1811, some soldiers from the regiment participated as volunteers in the Assault on the Isla de las Ratas.


 
Charge of the Brown and Blacks (Taringa) 

After the Portuguese invasion of July 1811, the siege of Montevideo was lifted on October 12 and an armistice was signed on October 21 with Viceroy Francisco Javier de Elío. Fulfilling the agreement, the Buenos Aires troops evacuated eastern soil in December of that year and returned to Buenos Aires, while other forces crossed the Uruguay River, camping in Entre Ríos, the same as a large part of the people who carried out the eastern Exodus.

Second Campaign to the Banda Oriental
Since the Portuguese had not withdrawn from the Banda Oriental, and the hostilities with the royalists of Montevideo had resumed, in April 1812 the First Triumvirate demanded the immediate Portuguese withdrawal under threat of war. The Triumvirate sent Artigas 20,000 pesos led by Ventura Vázquez and the Regiment No. 6 of Pardos y Morenos under the command of Soler and made him head of operations. The Regiment of Pardos y Morenos had taken No. 6 on January 6, 1812, this number previously belonging to a regiment that participated in the expedition to Upper Peru and was reduced to a battalion.
On April 7, Artigas crossed the Uruguay River, returning to the Banda Oriental together with the Pardos y Morenos Regiment, highlighting parties towards the Cuareim, Negro and Tacuarembó rivers. On April 13, the Itapebí Grande Combat against the Portuguese took place, in which 400 infants from the Pardos y Morenos Regiment under the command of Soler participated.9 10 A new Portuguese attack forced Artigas' forces to cross the Uruguay River towards Between rivers.
In April 1812 the Triumvirate sent one of its members, Manuel de Sarratea, to take command of the army installed in Entre Ríos, sharpening the disagreements with Artigas. Among the forces that Sarratea separated from the Artigas camp at the end of 1812 was the Regiment No. 6 of Pardos y Morenos. When Sarratea went to Concepción del Uruguay, Soler stayed for a while in Salto Chico with his regiment.
In September 1812 the vanguard of Sarratea's army, commanded by Rondeau, crossed the Uruguay River and began the march on Montevideo, including the regiment Regiment No. 6 with 600 men. On October 20, 1812, the patriot army began the Second Siege of Montevideo. The Regiment No. 6 participated in an outstanding way in the Battle of Cerrito on December 31, 1812, having 43 dead and 65 wounded. For this triumph, on April 21, 1813, Soler received the orders of colonel of the Regiment No. 6 of Pardos y Morenos.
On March 17, 1814, 23 soldiers of the regiment commanded by second lieutenant Luis Antonio Frutos, participated in the capture of the Martín García island. The regiment remained besieging Montevideo until the fall of the plaza on May 23, 1814 at the hands of Carlos María de Alvear, being the first to enter the Citadel. In February 1815 part of the directorial troops evacuated Montevideo, including the brown and brown ones, being Soler appointed governor of that place on August 25, 1814, retaining the regiment headquarters. He served from August 1814 to February 25, 1815, when the troops of the United Provinces abandoned Montevideo, which remained in the hands of the Eastern militias of Artigas. In Buenos Aires the regiment was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Mariano Díaz. On September 5, 1816, Brigadier Soler was appointed master barracks and major general of the Army of the Andes.

Second Campaign to Alto Perú (1812-1813). The triangles represent the battles: blue for the independence victories (Exodus from Jujuy, Tucumán and Salta) and red for the royalist victories (Vilcapugio and Ayohuma).

Second Expedition to Alto Perú
When Belgrano took command of the Army of the North in April 1812, the Pardos y Morenos Corps under the command of Lieutenant Colonel José Superí, with 305 combatants, was in it.11 On December 10, 1812, reinforcements were received from Buenos Aires, between They were 70 or 80 brown and brown who joined the Corps of Castas, becoming the Battalion of Castas, under the command of Superí.
The battalion participated in the Combate de las Piedras on September 3, 1812, with 100 men, and in the Battle of Tucumán on September 24, 1812, commanding Superí one of the infantry columns. He also participated in the Battle of Salta on September 20, 1813.
After the defeat of Vilcapugio on October 1, 1813, Belgrano established his camp in Macha, trying to reorganize the army, which included 198 pardos and morenos under the command of Superí, but was defeated in the Battle of Ayohuma on November 14, 1813. , having to retrograde to Jujuy.

Third Campaign to Upper Peru (1815). The red triangle represents the only important battle of it, the royalist victory at Sipe-Sipe.

Third Expedition to Alto Perú
On August 27, 1814, Regiment No. 6 (together with No. 2 and No. 9) was assigned to join the Auxiliary Army of Peru, continuing under Díaz's command since Soler's appointment as governor of Montevideo. The two battalions of the regiment traveled in 8 ships from the port of San Pedro, arriving in Santa Fe in the second week of September 1814. On September 21 they left Santa Fe, but on the way 126 men deserted, taking 42 rifles with them. They arrived at San Miguel de Tucumán on November 21, reduced to 549 soldiers and officers. In the first days of January 1815 the regiment moved to Huacalera in the Humahuaca ravine, where it arrived on January 16, remaining until March 20, 1815, when it headed for San Miguel de Chapaca. Arriving in Potosí on May 18, it continued on June 15 towards Yocaya and on August 16 the forces remained in the towns of Leñas, Culta and Sopollo, to leave for Ayohuma on September 17.
On October 2, 1815, Rondeau ordered Regiment No. 6 to go to Chayanta. On November 27, it was found in Sipe Sipe, where the Auxiliary Army was defeated on November 29, 1815 in the Battle of Viluma. Regiment No. 6 was in the reserve, but was involved in the escape of the Argentine infantry after the defeat, leaving many prisoners and many others dispersed.12
The dispersed met with the other troops in Yotala, retreating towards Tupiza and then towards Huacalera in the Humahuaca ravine, to later continue to Tucumán. On August 7, 1816, in Trancas, Rondeau was displaced and replaced by Manuel Belgrano at the head of the Army of the North. The army established itself in the Citadel of Tucumán, where it arrived on August 28. Belgrano distributed the remains of Regiment No. 6 between regiments No. 3 and No. 9, dissolving it.



Legacy
The 8 Mechanized Infantry Regiment (RIMec 8) based in Comodoro Rivadavia is considered heir to the history of the Brown and Black Regiment. At its headquarters there is a statue in homage to the soldier Falucho, an Afro-American who participated in the War of Independence in Peru in the Río de la Plata Regiment.

 
Mechanized Infantry Regiment 8, heir to that Brown and Black Regiment that crossed the Andes with San Martín. (Armando Fernández)  


References

1. Biografías argentinas y sudamericanas. Volumen 2, pág. 689. Autor: Jacinto R. Yaben. Editor: Editorial "Metrópolis"
2. Biografía del brigadier argentino don Miguel Estanislao Soler. pág. 15. Autor: Pedro Lacasa. Editor: Imprenta "Constitución", 1854
3. Historia de la nación argentina: (desde los orígenes hasta la organización definitiva en 1862). Volumen 5, Parte 2, pág. 570. Autores: Academia Nacional de la Historia (Argentina), Ricardo Levene. Editor: Librería y editorial "El Ateneo", 1941
4. Archivo general de la República Argentina: Publicacion dirigida por Adolfo P. Carranza. Publicado por G. Kraft, 1894. pág. 78 y 79
5. Noticias históricas de la República Argentina: Obra póstuma. Escrito por Ignacio Nuñez, Ignacio Benito Nuñez, Julio Núñez. Pág. 173. Edition: 2. Publicado por Guillermo Kraft, 1898
6. Historia de Belgrano y de la independencia argentina, Volumen 1, pág. 375. Volúmenes 109-112 de Serie del siglo y medio. Autor: Bartolomé Mitre. Editor: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1967
7. Biografías argentinas y sudamericanas, Volumen 1, pág. 555. Autor: Jacinto R. Yaben. Editor: C. E. Escobar Tirado y D. E. Osorio Correa, 1938
8. Semblanza histórica del Ejército Argentino. Autor: Secretaría General de Ejército, Buenos Aires, 1981. pág. 29 y 30
9. El general Artigas y su época: Apuntes documentados para la historia oriental, Volumen 1. pp. 479. Autor: Justo Maeso. Editor: Tip. oriental de Peña y Roustan, 1885
10. Compendio de la historia de la República O. del Uruguay, Volúmenes 1-3. pp. 149-150. Autor: Isidoro De-María. Edición 7. Editor: Impr. "El siglo Ilustrado" de Turenne, Varzi y ca., 1895
11. Reestructuración del Ejército del Norte
12. Revista, Volumen 37, Números 432-437. Pág. 332. Autor: Círculo Militar (Buenos Aires, Argentina). Editor: Calle de Viamonte, 1937

Wikipedia

Argentine Aborigines: The Selk'nam People

Selk'nam aborigines, Tierra del Fuego, 1920s

Chon - Yagán and the forgotten Kawéskar from the Puerto Edén area. These images show us what they were, something of their genes runs through our blood. The Selk'nam were also known as the Onawo or Ona.

Conquest of the Desert: Francisco Moreno reaches the lake Nahuel Huapi

The Perito Moreno in Lake Nahuel Huapi

Revisionistas



In 1873, Francisco Moreno began his study trips to Patagonia supported by the Argentine Scientific Society and the Government of the Province of Buenos Aires. He arrived at Lake Nahuel Huapi for the first time at the beginning of 1876 and a year later, accompanied by Carlos Moyano, he reconnoitered the course of the Santa Cruz River up to its source in Lake Argentino, discovered by Feilberg in 1873. Although the resources assigned to the commission explorer were very small, she managed to carry out her mission and Moreno reached Lake Nahuel Huapi for the second time: "We were the first whites, from the Atlantic, to reach the high mountain ranges to reveal their riches and indicate, with the compass, the path that Argentine weapons would later follow”, stated the same Expert in a letter sent to General Bartolomé Miter in 1883.


On January 20, 1876, Francisco Pascasio Moreno, known as "The Expert," or Perito in Spanish, became the first white man to reach the shores of Nahuel Huapi, hoisting the flag alongside the breathtaking landscape, showcasing our light blue and white colors.

Moreno, a significant figure in Argentine history, not only played a crucial role in defining the Nation's borders and donating land for the first National Park but also embodied patriotism and noble ideals. Despite his remarkable contributions, he was eventually forgotten and passed away in poverty.

Born in Buenos Aires on May 31, 1852, at the age of 23, he embarked on his adventure to reach the shores of Lake Nahuel Huapi from the east. Traveling through territories dominated by indigenous people, he faced numerous challenges.

After obtaining permission from the great cacique Sayhueque, Moreno ventured alone and reached Lake Nahuel Huapi on January 20, 1876, planting the Argentine flag and becoming the first white person to reach the eastern shores. He had to rush back as the Indians were preparing for a raid.

On November 11, 1879, Moreno made a second attempt. Despite facing difficulties, including being poisoned by wild strawberries, he miraculously survived. He was taken prisoner and endured 15 days of captivity before escaping with the help of his guides, Gavino and Melgarejo. Their dramatic escape lasted seven days, navigating treacherous waters while Indians pursued them. Fortunately, they were eventually rescued.

Moreno's explorations also included traversing the Santa Cruz River from its mouth in the Atlantic to its source in the Andes, discovering lakes such as Argentino, San Martín, and Viedma, which he named.

Later, the Argentine government appointed him as an expert in boundary issues with Chile due to his extensive knowledge of the region and unwavering love for his country.

Despite his significant contributions, Moreno's personal wealth declined as he dedicated his resources to the service of his country. In his final days, he expressed his financial struggles, having given so much to Argentina without leaving any property for his children.

Francisco Pascasio Moreno passed away on November 22, 1919. In 1934, the National Congress approved the construction of a mausoleum on Sentinel Island in Nahuel Huapi to house his remains, along with those of his wife. Today, his ashes rest amidst the majestic beauty and tranquility of the lake, a tribute to his exceptional and selfless contributions to making Argentina great. He remains a rare hero, inspiring numerous actions that shaped the country's history.

1955 Revolution: Peronist Mobs Burn Catholic Temples

View of the High Altar of San Francisco

The Temples Burn

Original source: 1955 Guerra Civil. La Revolucion Libertadora y la caída de Perón



On the night of June 16-17, 1955, Peronist mobs assaulted and set fire to the historic temples of Buenos Aires in retaliation for the aerial bombardment


The terrible violence unleashed that day did not stop after the fighting. The reader will remember that around half past four in the afternoon, bands of exalted Peronists rushed into the Metropolitan Curia to sack and burn it, a fact that General Ernesto Fatigatti witnessed when he passed through the place, in the heat of the fight.

The mob destroyed objects of enormous artistic and cultural value and, along with them, the Historical Archive, with its old documents from the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, "a unique and irreplaceable treasure", in the words of Isidoro Ruiz Moreno.



A woman cries before the desolation in San Francisco (Courtesy Fundación Villa Manuelita)


On that chaotic day, invaluable pieces of art and historical artifacts belonging to the city of Buenos Aires were tragically lost forever. The chaos ensued when the Curia building caught fire, and in the midst of the turmoil, a mob appeared, carrying off sacred objects, precious artistic vestments, ancient chalices, ciboriums, monstrances, patens, habits, and cassocks. These individuals then proceeded towards the main temples of the city with the clear intent of vandalizing them.

Two groups marched towards the convents of Santo Domingo and Nuestra Señora de la Merced. At Santo Domingo, the religious witnessed the arrival of agitators in trucks who, upon passing the temple, displayed aggressive gestures and shouted curses against the Church. In fear of an imminent attack, the friars and seminarians hurried to secure the doors and windows, but due to the escalating situation, they eventually had to evacuate under the guidance of their prior, Fray Luis Alberto Montes de Oca, who was deeply concerned for their safety. Despite the difficulties in communication caused by the cut telephone lines, Fray Luis chose to remain at the convent as its custodian.



Another vandalized altar in San Francisco

At 5:30 p.m., a frenzied crowd surged toward the gates blocking the atrium's access, while some individuals attempted to enter through the windows on Calle Defensa by breaking the bars. The devoted religious had no option but to hastily disguise themselves in civilian attire and escape through a small door in the 5 de Julio passage, blending in with the chaotic mob.

The historical temple, which held the tomb of General Manuel Belgrano and other iconic figures from the country's history, suffered merciless destruction and burning. This sacred place held invaluable cultural treasures, including the banners captured from royalists during battles in Salta and Tucumán, as well as from the British during the invasions of 1806 and 1807, along with precious artworks, images, and religious artifacts. Despite Fray Luis's attempt to seek help from the 2nd Police Station, the authorities responsible for maintaining public order did nothing to contain the savagery.

Two blocks away, at the corner of Defensa and Alsina, the San Francisco church and the adjoining chapel of San Roque also caught fire. This was the place where General Lavalle had been appointed governor of Buenos Aires in 1828.

Inside the convent's oratory, Fray Cecilio Heredia, along with fifteen other religious, was offering prayers of gratitude for Perón's call for calm when a deafening commotion from outside startled them. The terrifying noise of the mob invading the temple grounds and the sight of the friars fleeing through a side door in civilian clothes shook the cloisters. Fray Cecilio managed to escape but remained nearby, deeply saddened to witness the convent and church consumed by flames.

Just a short distance away, a similar scene unfolded at the church of San Ignacio, the oldest building in the city, connected to the historic Colegio Nacional (formerly known as Colegio Real de San Carlos, the birthplace of heroes). The enraged mob, armed with heavy objects, violently assaulted the grand doors and hurled insults at the religious and the Church as a whole.



This is how the ceilings of the Curia chapel appeared after the incident:

Father Alberto Lattuada, the parish priest, was engrossed in reading in his room when the sound of screams reached his ears. He rushed to the staircase and witnessed the crowd breaking through the porticoes, storming inside with shouts and raised clubs. The Jesuit bravely confronted them, raising his arms in a plea for calm and reason, urging them not to carry out an attack they would regret.

As Father Alberto attempted to restrain the vandals, he felt someone forcefully grabbing his arm and dragging him away. It was a young blond boy who shook him violently, forcing him outside amidst blows and insults. The boy threatened him with lynching if he dared to stay in the vicinity.

Outside, Father Alberto spotted two Army trucks filled with soldiers parked near the church. Desperate for help, he ran towards them, only to receive a disheartening response that left him paralyzed. "We cannot intervene. Seek out the officer in charge," they said.

Deeply disturbed, the parish priest helplessly witnessed the ruffians removing sacred images and objects from the temple and throwing them onto the street while the flames started to engulf the interior. Nearby, Lieutenant priest Guillermo Sáenz observed the scene with a heavy heart. The old convent, which held the tomb of Juan José Castelli and was once the grand "Jesuit empire of the Missions," as described by Leopoldo Lugones, began to crumble under the onslaught.

When the initial acts of violence unfolded, Perón and his associates were gathered at the Ministry of the Army. From there, they saw the smoke and the glow of the first bonfires, realizing the catastrophe unfolding in the city center. The Justicialist leader, seated at a table, stood up and exclaimed indignantly:

-Take action immediately because these are communist gangs that are burning the churches, and then they are going to attribute it to me!

The president had barely finished speaking when Lucero urgently called General José Embrioni to inform him about the need to take immediate measures to protect the historical temples and threatened buildings. Embrioni contacted the police chief, who, remembering Minister Borlenghi's directive to keep the force stationed against potential attacks from revolutionary civilian commandos, decided to remain in place and take no action. He firmly believed that the Army would handle the situation.

Perón made a mistake by attributing responsibility to the communists because the attackers of the churches were actually his own supporters, driven by the fury and hatred he himself had incited.

At 6:30 p.m., the fire crews finally left their barracks and rushed to extinguish the fires. Upon arriving at Santo Domingo, Fire Commissioner Rómulo Pérez Algaba witnessed the burning of the Santeria and the altars, fueled by benches set on fire by the protesters.

Pérez Algaba also noticed an overturned tanker truck from which people were taking gasoline to add to the flames. He witnessed thugs smashing sacred images and objects on the pavement, stealing piggy banks, and desecrating ballot boxes containing relics of the heroes. Despite his attempts to communicate with his superiors, the vandals prevented him from doing so.

As he was on site, four individuals dressed in raincoats approached Pérez Algaba and warned him that flags captured from the English and Spanish were inside the temple, and four men were trapped in the library. They urged him to act swiftly to rescue them. Pérez Algaba responded firmly:

-Just as they came in let them come out. As for the flags... that's another thing.

The officer, accompanied by several firemen, ventured into the ruins, their path illuminated by a flashlight. Fortunately, they reached the site just in time to rescue the trophies and safeguard them. The glass covering had miraculously kept the trophies intact, protecting them from destruction. They swiftly retrieved the items and withdrew, narrowly escaping a collapsing column that would have obliterated everything.

During the rescue, Pérez Algaba and two of his men sustained injuries. These courageous individuals deserve the gratitude of posterity for safeguarding these invaluable pieces of our history.

Pérez Algaba and his team members were evacuated, but the four looters, equipped with chandeliers, remained inside. They broke the bars on the windows and daringly jumped from the first floor at the corner of Venezuela and Defensa.

Meanwhile, San Francisco was engulfed in flames on all sides. The firefighters had to engage in hand-to-hand combat with the protesters to halt the destruction. It was a spectacle to behold as burning pieces of wood detached from the central dome, plummeting onto the streets and sidewalks.

At Nuestra Señora de la Merced, the mob attacked and set fire to the left side of the temple. The flames spread to the sacristy, and thick smoke filled the central nave. In contrast, Nuestra Señora de la Piedad was also targeted, but the spilled kerosene did not ignite, thanks to the intervention of neighbors and law enforcement officers who managed to neutralize the threat. Nevertheless, the looting had devastating consequences, and things could have been much worse if the firefighters hadn't arrived in time to extinguish the fire that the protesters had started in the library for the blind on the mezzanine.



A different perspective of the High Altar at the Basilica of San Francisco is shown.

San Miguel endured minimal damage in the central nave, but the sacristy and rectory were ablaze when a team led by Commissioner Severo Toranzo arrived and thwarted a second attack.

Similarly, San Nicolás de Bari, situated on Santa Fe Avenue, suffered destruction as looters set the church on fire and threw valuable artistic and religious objects from the second-floor balconies. The attackers had to escape through side exits to avoid being trapped. It's worth noting that the church was originally founded in 1733 by the Spanish Domingo de Acassuso at its original location on 9 de Julio and Av. Corrientes, where the obelisk now stands [2].

The most severe damage occurred at Nuestra Señora de las Victorias, located on Paraguay and Libertad. The mob started a small fire and ransacked everything within reach. Both the parish office and the sacristy were in flames when a member of the parish movement named Marcó Bonorino and an unidentified lady attempted to douse the fire using water from vases. Another individual, named Cullen, alerted the police that several individuals had entered the priestly rooms, overturned a kerosene stove to start a fire, and stolen the collection money stored there.



The destruction at the Belgranian Institute was heartbreaking.

When the violence reached its peak, the parish priest, RP Jacobo Wagner, bravely attempted to intervene and stop the criminals. However, the attack he endured was so brutal that he was left unconscious on the ground. He remained in a prostrate state for forty-five days before tragically succumbing to the injuries inflicted on him.

Other Peronist groups targeted various churches, including San Juan Bautista located in Piedras y Alsina, where the fifth viceroy of the Río de la Plata, Don Pedro Melo of Portugal and Villena, is buried. Our Lady of Mercy and Our Lady of Help, the latter being associated with the drama of Camila O'Gorman [3], also suffered a similar fate.

Militants from the Basic Unit situated on Av. Corrientes and Jorge Newbery attempted to set fire to the church located on Osorio and Warnes. However, they were apprehended in time and detained for further investigation at Section 29.

That day, a devastating wave of destruction engulfed several other important temples including the Metropolitan Curia, Nuestra Señora de la Merced, San Ignacio, San Francisco, San Roque, Santo Domingo, San Juan Bautista, San Nicolás de Bari, Nuestra Señora de las Victorias, San Miguel Arcángel, Nuestra Señora del Socorro, and La Piedad. The fires reddened the low clouds that covered the Buenos Aires night, as described by Ruiz Moreno. But it wasn't only churches that were attacked; other institutions like the Belgraniano Institute, the Brotherhood of Nuestra Señora del Rosario, the Reconquest and Defense Commission, and the Pious Union of Blessed Martín de Porres, adjacent to Santo Domingo, also suffered destruction and fire.

Disturbing images circulated globally, showing the vandals wreaking havoc in the temples and parading around at night wearing stolen priestly garments and holding stolen objects. These actions brought shame to the Argentine people and tarnished their tradition. In a matter of hours, the country lost invaluable treasures of its artistic, historical, and religious heritage.

Miguel Ángel Cavallo offers a description of the events in Bahía Blanca on the night of June 16. Following the failure of the uprising, groups of workers assembled in front of the regional CGT building to hear their leaders' speeches and then marched in columns to the main square, armed with sticks, chains, and stones, prepared to attack the Cathedral. Once inside the city's main temple, they forced open its large doors and proceeded to destroy altars, images, and internal rooms. They even toppled the Carrara marble baptismal font and set parts of the interior on fire. Similar to the events in Buenos Aires, the mob donned clerical clothing, singing and dancing in the streets while chanting obscene and insulting verses.


A parishioner seeking solace in prayer (Courtesy Fundación Villa Manuelita)

Subsequently, the protesters rushed to the Corazón de María church and then to Nuestra Señora de Lourdes, causing similar damage. They continued their rampage by attacking the newsroom of the newspaper "Democracia," a courageous opposition publication led by Luis E. Vera. They wreaked havoc on their offices, destroying furniture, machinery, and facilities, before igniting another fire.

The vandals concluded their destructive spree at the headquarters of the Radical Civic Union, which they also set ablaze. Afterward, they retreated through the streets, singing chants in support of their leader. Surprisingly, neither the firefighters nor the police intervened, and there was no official acknowledgment of the events the following day. The newspaper "Democracia" was shut down, its owner detained and held incommunicado, along with the priests from the churches and religious schools of the city, who were transferred by trucks to the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Regiment [4].

Isidoro Ruiz Moreno provides an approximate estimate of the losses incurred on that fateful day. Commissioner Rafael Pugliese, head of the 2nd Section, discovered the urn containing the remains of General Zapiola lying behind the mausoleum of General Belgrano at the Santo Domingo convent. The urn had been forcefully removed from the Virgin's dressing room.



Anguish and despair gripped the porteños as they endured fateful hours. Their city was first bombed, and immediately after, their historical, cultural, and religious heritage was devastated, as described by the Courtesy Fundación Villa Manuelita.

In the atrium, antique furniture, some of which had been lent by the convent for the Cabildo Abierto meeting on May 22, 1810, was set ablaze. The main altar and two other sides of the church were consumed by the fire, while several others suffered severe damage.

Nearly all the precious images were removed from their rightful places, either thrown to the ground or set on fire. Crystals and stained glass windows were shattered with stones, and the colonial furniture and historical organ in the choir were consumed by the flames. The Venetian majolica of the vaults was destroyed, and the dressing room of the Virgen del Rosario, where the banners seized from the English in 1806 and 1807, and those captured by General Belgrano from the Spaniards during the campaigns of the North, was demolished. Numerous trophies displayed in the side wall showcases vanished.

The sacristy suffered the same fate, reduced to ashes, with its cabinets set on fire, and the two Carrara marble baptismal fonts smashed into pieces. Internal halls and a minor chapel in the eastern sector were also burned. The priests' rooms were ransacked, their furniture destroyed, and the prior's room was set on fire.

San Ignacio's altars were ruthlessly destroyed, with wood torn from them, and others caught fire, along with smashed furniture. The vandals even set fire to the church's library and the parish priest's room, demolishing the crockery, sideboards, and a grand mirror with a console.

In the chapel of San Roque, the altars were set ablaze, and the linings of the vaults and richly decorated side walls crumbled to pieces. The main images were also destroyed. Nearby, San Francisco faced a similar tragic fate, with all its ancient and artistic altars, including the largest one, lost to the flames. The dome collapsed, leaving only its metal skeleton standing, and precious stained glass windows fell into pieces. The fire devoured extremely valuable paintings and furniture from the 18th and 19th centuries. The presbytery, sacristy, carvings, images, and sacred objects were thrown viciously about, and rooms and dependencies of the convent were engulfed in flames. Priceless chalices, candelabras, monstrances, crucifixes, and other valuables were stolen, many of them made of silver and solid gold, adorned with precious gemstones. Among the ruins, the great 1.50-meter tabernacle stood out, tossed amidst rubble and the remains of charred objects.

In one night, Buenos Aires lost four centuries of history, leaving the city in mourning over its irreplaceable heritage.


Dome and roofs of the ruined Cathedral


Looters attack the Tabernacle in the Cathedral

Absorbed faithful observe the destruction in the Curia

Library and Archive of the Curia destroyed by fire


The great dome of San Francisco victim of the flames

The altar of San Francisco desecrated

The people of Buenos Aires observe in disbelief the desecration of their temples, in this case San Francisco


More destruction in San Francisco


State in which the ceilings of San Francisco were left

Vandalized benches and imagery in San Francisco

San Francisco side altar

San Francisco. Access to the convent


High Altar of San Francisco


Side altar of the Basilica Nuestra Señora del Rosario (Convent of Santo Domingo)


Convent of Santo Domingo. Side view of the High Altar


Ruins and rubble in the church of San Ignacio


Saint Joseph beheaded in San Ignacio


Monsignor D'Andrea's room in San Miguel Archangel burned down

San Miguel Arcangel. Another image of the state in which Monsignor D'Andrea's room was left


Ruins in the Church of San Juan Bautista, tomb of Viceroy Pedro Melo of Portugal and Villena

Notes

1. Antonio González Balcarce, Martín de Alzaga, Juan de Lezica y Torrezuri and the general José María Zapiola.
2. Miguel Ángel Cavallo, Puerto Belgrano, Hora 0. La Marina se subleva, Cap. III “El 16 de junio en Bahía Blanca”.
3. Isidoro Ruiz Moreno, op. Cit., Tomo I, Tercera Parte, Cap XI, “La cruz en la hoguera”.
4. Between 1935 and 1936 it was moved to its current location and it houses the marble font in which Bernardino Rivadavia, Bartolomé Miter and San Héctor Valdivielso Sáez, the first Argentine saint, were baptized, as well as pieces of sacred art of inestimable value, something that the scoundrel was completely unaware.
5. In a niche of the latter lie the remains of Santa Constancia Martyr, victim of the persecutions of Nero, sent from Rome when it was elevated to a basilica.