Italian Legions in Argentina

The Italian Legions in the Argentine Republic

José Luis Alonso y Juan Manuel Peña.
Published in the Revista Superior de Guerra, Number 553, Apr-Jun 2004

The prolonged struggles faced by the Argentine nation during the 19th century gave rise to significant human actions that have largely faded into obscurity or are briefly mentioned in history books.

On February 5, 1856, 352 Italian soldiers under the command of Colonel Silvino Olivien arrived by sea at the present-day city of Bahía Blanca, in southern Buenos Aires Province. At the time, the city was a modest settlement surrounding the old Fort Argentino, facing the vast pampas and the constant threat of Indigenous attacks. The enthusiastic welcome from the sparse local population prompted Colonel Olivien to issue a printed proclamation, urging the people of Bahía Blanca to see the legionnaires as “brothers who wished to help them continue the great task of settling that rich and expansive southern region of Buenos Aires Province.”

Origins of the Italian Legion

Who were these foreigners? Where did they come from? And who was Silvino Olivien?

The prolonged siege of Montevideo (1843–1851) had attracted numerous Italians with liberal and Masonic ideals. These individuals—defeated in Italy’s Wars of Independence and the Roman Republic—were inspired by Alexandre Dumas’ book The New Troy, which portrayed Montevideo’s siege as another fight against tyranny for freedom. Many were Ligurian, Piedmontese, and Savoyard exiles who, under Giuseppe Garibaldi’s command, extended their struggle for liberty to the shores of the Río de la Plata, forming a Legion.

Their shared experiences, dangers faced, and shared ideals forged strong bonds between these European exiles and their Uruguayan and Argentine comrades. These ties were further solidified by the close friendship between Garibaldi and Bartolomé Mitre, then an Argentine military leader and later the President of Argentina. After the siege ended, many Italians moved to Buenos Aires, where Mitre became not only their best ally but also their “brother in cause and principles,” a title he gave to both Mazzinians (followers of Giuseppe Mazzini) and Garibaldinians.

Formation of the Italian Legion in Buenos Aires

On December 9, 1852, Buenos Aires faced a siege by forces loyal to General Hilario Lagos, who had rebelled against the state government. A decree authorized foreign residents to take up arms “exclusively to maintain public order.” Numerous volunteers formed the German, Spanish, and Swiss legions. Among these, the Italian Legion stood out not only for its size but also for its refusal to limit itself to police functions, insisting on active participation in the trenches defending the city.

The force was organized by two Italian officers: Colonel Silvino Olivien, born in Bruscios in 1820 and trained at the Naples Military Academy (La Nunziatella), and Major Eduardo Clerici, a Milanese graduate of the Milan Military Academy and former lieutenant in the Austrian Army. Both men had fought in Italy’s revolutionary struggles and were exiled following their defeats.

Together, they assembled approximately 300 Italian residents of Buenos Aires into a battalion named the Italian Legion. This force fought valiantly alongside the defenders of Buenos Aires, earning praise for their military skills. Their first casualty was Lieutenant Erba, who fell on January 9, 1853, and was honored with burial in the city’s cathedral.

Distinctions and Honors

The Italian Legion distinguished itself in battles at Plaza Lorea and the English Cemetery (near present-day Pasco and Pichincha streets). Their bravery earned them recognition from General Manuel Hornos, commander of the Argentine forces. On April 21, 1853, the Buenos Aires government presented the Legion with a blue-and-white flag featuring the city’s coat of arms embroidered in silver and gold. The flag bore a blue silk ribbon inscribed in gold: "Con questa bandiera vinceremo" - Buenos Aires, 16 aprile 1853. The flag, gifted by “porteñas” (women of Buenos Aires), remains preserved in the National Historical Museum.

Further recognition came on May 30, 1853, when a government decree officially renamed the force the Valiant Legion. Its members were granted the use of honor cords, a prestigious distinction for both officers and soldiers.

Disbandment and Legacy

In July 1853, following the conclusion of the conflict, the Italian Legion was disbanded at the request of Colonel Olivien, who returned the Legion’s flag to the government before departing for Italy. There, Olivien participated in new revolutionary activities, was captured, and sentenced to death. Buenos Aires authorities intervened successfully to secure his commutation, and he returned to Buenos Aires on October 31, 1855, exiled for life from the Papal States.

Colonization Plans and New Frontiers

Olivien’s forced return coincided with government plans to secure internal frontiers against Indigenous attacks in southern Buenos Aires Province. The plan involved creating militarized colonies, where settlers would be granted land in exchange for defending and developing present and future settlements. Thus, the legacy of the Italian Legion extended beyond their valor on the battlefield to contributions in shaping Argentina’s southern frontier.

Bahía Blanca, founded in 1828 and whose characteristics have already been pointed out, was the site chosen to test the project.

Italian Legionnaire

The Agricultural-Military Legion and the Founding of Nueva Roma

On November 18, 1855, a decree established an agricultural-military colony of 600 men under the jurisdiction of the Buenos Aires state army ordinances. Initially settled in Bahía Blanca, the colony could be relocated to other points in the southern frontier as needed. Colonel Silvino Olivien, due to his military background and engineering expertise, was appointed commander, with Major Clerici serving as his second-in-command. Among the recruits were 150 former members of the Italian Legion, alongside their previous officers.

One notable member was Juan Bautista Cúneo, a former soldier and journalist, who founded the first Italian-language newspaper in Argentina, named after the military force: La Legión Agrícola Militar. Thirteen issues of this publication were printed.

Uniform and Symbolism

The Agricultural-Military Legion adopted uniforms modeled after the French Zouaves from the Crimean War, featuring a kepi similar to those of the Buenos Aires army but in red, a nod to the Garibaldinian roots of its members. As a continuation of the Valiant Legion, the governor of Buenos Aires, Dr. Pastor Obligado, and the Minister of War and Navy, Bartolomé Mitre, ceremonially returned the Legion’s original flag to the new Italian formation on January 11, 1856.

Arrival and Organization

On February 5, 1856, the Legion arrived in Bahía Blanca with approximately 300 men. While not all had military experience, they were selected for their knowledge of agricultural practices. Captain Felipe Cavanti, who had been exiled from the Papal States, remained in Buenos Aires to organize the rest of the force.

Between February and July 1856, after enduring a yellow fever outbreak, the Legion began exploring the surrounding territory and divided itself into three branches:

1. Infantry: Comprising six companies.
2. Artillery: Commanded by Captain Juan Penna, a Milanese born in 1830 with extensive experience in the Italian Wars of 1848–1849. Penna would go on to have a distinguished military career in Argentina.
3. Cavalry: Led by Captain Mariano Barilan, a revolutionary from Rimini and former officer of the Royal Guard, who had also been exiled.

The Founding of Nueva Roma

On July 1, 1856, the Legion laid the foundations for the colony of Nueva Roma, located 25 kilometers west of Bahía Blanca along the Sauce Chico River. This colony was established to fulfill the dual objectives of the Agricultural-Military Legion: to populate and defend the region.

Notable Events

Two significant events marked the development of Nueva Roma. First, Major Clerici, who had established cordial relations with the influential Indigenous chief Calfucurá, was forced to step down due to illness and passed away in October 1856. His efforts in diplomacy with the local Indigenous communities left a lasting legacy.

The Agricultural-Military Legion exemplified a unique blend of military prowess and agricultural ambition, contributing to the expansion and defense of Argentina’s southern frontier.

The Years of the Agricultural-Military Legion

On September 28, 1856, Colonel Silvino Olivien was assassinated by mutinous members of his own force, angered by the severe punishments they were subjected to. The perpetrators deserted, and their crime remained unpunished. The arrival of Captain Felipe Caronti months later restored order and ensured the continuation of the Legion’s mission.

The government appointed Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Susini as the new commander of the Agricultural-Military Legion. Susini, a Milanese sailor and veteran who had sailed and fought alongside Giuseppe Garibaldi during campaigns on Argentine rivers, was one of the founders of the Italian Legion during the siege of Montevideo.

In 1853, Susini arrived in Bahía Blanca accompanied by Major Juan Bautista Charlone, a valiant officer who would later distinguish himself in the Paraguayan War, and Captains Sagani, Zonza, and Valerga, along with forty soldiers. All these men were veterans of the Italian and Valiant Legions.

Reorganization and Military Campaigns

Susini undertook a comprehensive reorganization of the force, renaming it the Military Legion. He discharged less capable members and restored the unit’s renowned reputation. Under Susini’s leadership, the Legion distinguished itself in campaigns against Indigenous forces, including actions at Salinas Grandes and the Battle of Pigüé in February 1859, where they faced Chief Calfucurá’s forces. General Wenceslao Paunero, commander of the Bahía Blanca Division, praised their valor.

In May 1859, the Legion defended Bahía Blanca against an attack by 2,500 Indigenous warriors, defeating them, recovering stolen goods, and freeing numerous captives. For his leadership, Susini was promoted to the rank of colonel by the Buenos Aires government in July 1859.

Contributions Beyond the Battlefield

The Legion’s impact extended beyond military accomplishments. Captain Felipe Caronti spearheaded significant development projects in the Bahía Blanca region, including the construction of the first port pier, two schools, and the first church. He also manufactured ammunition, repaired weapons, drafted topographic maps, and conducted meteorological studies. Caronti, unable to complete his engineering studies in Italy due to political exile, realized his aspirations in the country that adopted him.

Final Campaigns and Legacy

After four years of campaigns against southern Indigenous tribes, the Buenos Aires government ordered the Military Legion to return and participate in the conflict against General Urquiza’s army during a renewed civil war between Buenos Aires and the rest of the country.

The Legion fought valiantly at the Battle of Pavón, further cementing its legendary reputation. Colonel Juan Bautista Charlone, renowned for his courage and leadership, was promoted and awarded an honorary sword for his service.

Recognition from Garibaldi

The Military Legion’s exploits reached Giuseppe Garibaldi, who, from his home in Caprera, sent a letter to his former comrades on November 15, 1861. In it, he expressed his admiration and pride in their contributions to Argentina, ensuring that their heroic deeds remained part of both Argentine and Italian history. The enduring legacy of the Legion reflected the ideals of liberty and resilience shared by its members. It stated:

"Alía Legione Italiana de Buenos Aires Abete combattuto valerosamente per la libertá della Reppublicá Argentina, che é un popolo caro, honesto e generoso".

"Vi invio una parola de omaggio, cl 'affette di gratitudine, in nome della Italia intera e del vostro vecchio compagno d¨armi G. Garibaldi".

The Final Chapter of the Military Legion and Its Legacy

An emotional ceremony took place on February 4, 1864, in the city of Rosario, Santa Fe Province, where the Military Legion was stationed. During the event, the legionnaires received a new Argentine flag to replace their original one, which was nearly destroyed after so many campaigns and battles.

In early 1865, the Legion returned to Buenos Aires to complete its ranks with Argentine officers and troops. In April of that year, it was merged into the 8th Line Infantry Regiment, which then marched to the Paraguayan War, initiated on May 25, 1865. On that date, Paraguayan forces under Marshal Francisco Solano López, already at war with the Empire of Brazil, launched a surprise invasion of Argentine territory, triggering the War of the Triple Alliance. In this conflict, the armies of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina fought against Paraguay in what became the bloodiest war in South American history.

Massive numbers of men were sacrificed against Paraguayan fortresses, defended with extraordinary bravery amidst dense jungles. Both sides demonstrated courage bordering on madness. The Paraguayan government, desperate after prolonged battles, even formed battalions of children and women, continuing the struggle until the annihilation of the last 1,000 soldiers of Solano López’s army, with López himself perishing alongside them.

The Legion in the Paraguayan War

The men of the Military Legion proved their valor throughout the war, distinguishing themselves in all the battles they fought. They participated in the defense of the city of Corrientes and fought in the battles of Yatay, Uruguayana, and the infamous massacre at Curupaytí. In this brutal engagement, Colonel Juan Bautista Charlone fell while leading an infantry charge in a futile attempt to breach Paraguayan trenches, reminiscent of the trench warfare horrors that would shock the world during World War I.

After Charlone’s death, command of the Italian forces passed to Colonel Baldomero Sotelo, an Argentine officer. Under his leadership, the Legion fought at Lomas Valentinas and Paso Hondo, where on October 21, 1869, they captured an eight-cannon battery in a bayonet assault.

Following these actions, the Legion became part of the Occupation Army, stationed in Asunción, the Paraguayan capital, until January 1871. Throughout the War of the Triple Alliance, the Legion wore its distinctive uniform, though it became increasingly adapted to the campaign’s necessities and shortages. After the war, the remnants of the once-glorious Legion returned to Corrientes, where they were incorporated into the 1st Battalion of the 8th Infantry Regiment.

Other Italian Forces

The Military Legion was not the only Italian-origin force serving with the Argentine Army. Two additional Italian formations were established:

1st Volunteer Legion or Volunteers of Liberty

This unit was organized by Commander José Giribone, born in Genoa in 1823 and exiled for political reasons. Giribone arrived in Montevideo in 1843 and fought alongside Giuseppe Garibaldi and Francisco Anzani during the siege of the Uruguayan capital. Known for his musical talent and exemplary bravery, Giribone composed a military march, La Marcha del Tala, which he bequeathed to the Argentine Army as a legacy of his sacrifice and dedication, notably displayed in the Battle of El Tala.

A Lasting Legacy

The Military Legion, alongside other Italian volunteer forces, embodied the ideals of courage, sacrifice, and dedication. Their contributions to the Argentine military during some of the nation’s most challenging conflicts remain a testament to the enduring bond between Italy and Argentina, rooted in shared struggles for freedom and justice.

Cnel. Antonio Sussini

On August 10, 1861, he was appointed commander of a force to be organized under the name Volunteers of Liberty. This unit was tasked with protecting the city of Rosario, Argentina, but after only a few months, it was disbanded to form a new unit called the Foreign Legion. This new force included volunteers of various nationalities, though Italians remained the majority.

The Foreign Legion committed to serve under a three-year contract and was sent to reinforce the Third Line Infantry Regiment, which defended the town of Azul in southern Buenos Aires Province from Indigenous attacks. Its name was later changed to the First Volunteer Legion, and under this designation, it fought in the War of the Triple Alliance as part of the allied Army of Operations.

On February 17, 1868, Commander Gribone fell in battle, succumbing to 18 wounds, “all from the front,” as recorded in the military report of the time, during an engagement against superior forces. With his death, the second heroic Italian figure in this war was lost.

Second Volunteer Legion: The aforementioned Colonel Antonio Susini, who had reorganized the Agricultural-Military Legion, had previously delegated its command to Lieutenant Colonel Charlone when Susini was appointed Commander of the Buenos Aires State Government’s Naval Squadron in 1857. However, unable to remain detached from the ongoing conflict in Paraguay, Susini returned to active service on land. He organized another unit, named the Second Volunteer Legion, with which he marched as part of the Army of Operations, participating in the entire campaign.

Juan Bautista Charlone

From the very beginning, Antonio Susini was appointed to command a brigade that included his Legion and ultimately rose to the prestigious position of Commander of the 1st Corps of the Argentine Army.

At the conclusion of the war against Paraguay, remnants of the Italian forces participated in some actions during subsequent Argentine civil wars before being discharged after their extensive campaigns.

There would no longer be Italian Legions in the Argentine Army, but many of their members, both soldiers and officers, requested and were incorporated into the national army. They went on to hold high and important positions, contributing to the final struggles against Indigenous forces and the definitive organization of an army to which they had always belonged—by the right earned through their spilled blood.

Bibliography:

* Álbum de la Guerra del Paraguay. Imprenta Jacobo Peuser, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1893-1894.

* De Marco, Miguel Angel - La Guerra del Paraguay. Editorial Planeta, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1995

* Granienigo, Gaio Italiano entre Rosas y Mitre. Ediciones. Sediliba, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1987.

* Comando en Jefe del Ejército - Reseña histórica y orgánica del Ejército Argentino. Ediciones-Círculo Militar, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1972.

* Best Félix - Historia de las Guerras Argentinas. Torno II. Editorial Peuser, Buenos Aires, Argentina 1960

* Caronti, C. Luis -. Legiones Italianas. Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1907.

* Ferracutti, Enrique - Las expediciones militares en los orígenes de Bahía Blanca. Ediciones Círculo Militar, Buenos Aires, Argentina 1962

* Walther, Juan Carlos, La conquista del Desierto Ediciones Círculo Militar, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1964.

Triple Alliance War: Corrientes Fall and Argentina is Drawn into War

Corrientes Fall into Paraguayan Claws

April 13, 1865 — Paraguay Attacks the City of Corrientes: The War of the Triple Alliance Begins

Moored at the port of the provincial capital Corrientes were two Argentine ships, the 25 de Mayo and the Gualeguay. Both vessels were in port for repairs — unarmed, with reduced crews, and some sailors on shore leave.

On the morning of April 13, 1865, around six o’clock, five Paraguayan steamships appeared off the shores of Corrientes. Without any declaration of war, they swiftly positioned themselves and attacked the defenseless Argentine ships — an unprovoked, treacherous assault.

Outnumbered, the Argentine sailors mounted a heroic resistance, but they were soon overpowered and captured. Three hundred Paraguayan sailors seized around eighty Argentines; several who had already surrendered were immediately executed — beheaded by Guaraní fighters. The Argentine flags were struck down, thrown to the ground, while the attackers shouted praises for Marshal Solano López. Some sailors tried to escape by diving into the water but were shot and killed.

Meanwhile, 2,500 Paraguayan troops landed in the city of Corrientes, occupying the provincial capital. Other Paraguayan columns invaded the Mesopotamian provinces via various crossings, bringing the invasion force to a total of 27,000 men.

The surviving Argentine sailors would spend the rest of the war in captivity under inhumane conditions; many would die in prison. The Paraguayan occupation of Corrientes was harsh and brutal: kidnappings, rapes, destruction of Argentine property, and summary executions. Five local women — some with young children — were famously kidnapped and taken to Paraguay, later remembered as the “Cautivas correntinas”.

The legitimate governor, Manuel Lagraña, managed to escape with some soldiers into the provincial interior, seeking to gather men to repel the Paraguayan invasion. The invaders, in turn, set up a puppet government, fully subject to Asunción’s decisions.

It would take nearly a year — and bloody battles like Yatay and Pehuajó — to finally expel the invaders from Corrientes province.

This Paraguayan attack would ultimately trigger Argentina’s formal entry into the war, marking the start of the bloody War of the Triple Alliance.

Photograph: Steamship “25 de Mayo” and its crew, 1861. Many of these sailors would die during the Paraguayan capture; others would endure painful captivity. The captured ship itself would serve under Paraguayan colors for several years of the war.

Paraguayan War: Chronology on Google Earth

Biography: Lieutenant Colonel Cruz Cañete (1815-1868)

Lieutenant Colonel Cruz Cañete (1815-1868)

Lieutenant Colonel Cruz Cañete (1815-1868)

He was born in Buenos Aires in 1815, the son of Mariano Cañete and Leonor Peñalva, both from Buenos Aires. He entered military service in June 1835 as a soldier in the 4th Campaign Regiment’s Line Squadron.

In 1837, as a standard-bearer (a rank he achieved in 1836), he participated in a battle against Chilean Indigenous groups who had attacked friendly chiefs Llanqueleu and Francisco. That same year, he fought against the same forces under Lieutenant Colonel Quesada, and later in the Battle of Loreto on December 22, 1838, against a large contingent of Chilean and Ranquel Indigenous fighters, directly under Colonel Hilario Lagos as a cavalry lieutenant. In 1842, he was severely wounded in another action against Indigenous groups, under Captain Seguí’s command.

He continued his service at Fort Junín until 1844 as a lieutenant, then transferred to San Nicolás under Colonel Juan José Obligado’s command, where he remained until June 12, 1845. He subsequently served under General Lucio Norberto Mansilla and participated in the Battles of Vuelta de Obligado (November 20, 1845) and Quebracho (June 4, 1846) against Anglo-French naval forces, commanding a squadron he had personally trained. Mansilla, in a report dated November 15, 1860, described Cañete as “a disciplined, exemplary officer, devoted to his duties.”

He was promoted to captain in 1848 and major in November 1851. That same year, with his squadron, he joined a division that General Mansilla assigned to Colonel Julián Sosa, under whom Cañete fought in the Battle of Caseros. Mansilla had assigned command due to an illness requiring his return to Buenos Aires.

When Colonel Hilario Lagos rebelled against the Buenos Aires government on December 1, 1852, Major Cañete was stationed in San Nicolás, where Colonel José María Cortina, acting under Lagos’s command, enlisted him to help disarm groups moving towards San Nicolás after the disbandment of the Buenos Aires besieging army on July 13, 1853, maintaining order “with honor, activity, and patriotism” (Cortina’s report, November 20, 1860).

In November 1854, during the Buenos Aires invasion led by enemies from the province of Santa Fe and commanded by General Jerónimo Costa, Cañete, then a retired major, offered his services to Lieutenant Colonel Mariano Artayeta, the local military commander. Artayeta accepted, tasking him with organizing local cavalry forces, which he did successfully, leading 50 cavalrymen in capturing the defeated forces from El Tala and performing other missions, gaining the Superior Government’s recognition.

In January 1856, he accompanied Colonel Esteban García, commanding the first skirmishes against the invading forces of Generals Flores and Costa at Ensenada and Villamayor, where Costa was defeated and executed. As part of the Extramuros Regiment under Colonel García, he fought in the Battle of Cepeda, leading a squadron. After the dispersion of Buenos Aires cavalry, Cañete reached Morón, then returned to the capital and participated in the brief siege until the treaty of November 11. In a report dated December 17, 1860, Colonel García praised Cañete’s conduct: “I have nothing but respect for his morality, skill, and dedication to service.”

He participated in the Battle of Pavón and joined the "General San Martín" Regiment under Colonel García when the Paraguayan War began, taking part in the battles of Yatay, Uruguayana, Paso de la Patria, Itapirú, Estero Bellaco del Sud, Tuyutí, Yataytí-Corá, Boquerón, Sauce, and the cavalry demonstration at San Solano on September 22, 1866.

Promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel, he received full rank on May 8, 1868. However, he was forced to return to Buenos Aires due to severe dysentery. Complications from “malaria” led to Lieutenant Colonel Cruz Cañete’s death in the capital on July 28, 1868, at 53.

On January 18, 1858, he married Rosario Rodríguez, a widow from Buenos Aires, daughter of Colonel Ramón Rodríguez and Concepción Lahite. She passed away in 1894.

Sources

Efemérides – Patricios de Vuelta de Obligado.

www.revisionistas.com.ar

Yaben, Jacinto R. – Biografías argentinas y sudamericanas – Buenos Aires (1938).

Triple Alliance War: The Honor of the 1st of the Line

"I am not worthy of being your Boss" - By Esteban D. Ocampo

Escuadrón De Caballería Histórica

I remember a time of Glory where the Battalion Chiefs marched in front of their men to show themselves as examples, and not to remain in orders... Time in which together with the last of their soldiers they suffered the Battle; where they bled with them; where his heart broke when he saw his boys fall to the enemy's fire... A time where each of them was like a father to his men.

"The 1st of the Line and the 1st of the National Guards of Corrientes, attacked by an infernal fire of rifles and rockets, were soon surrounded by two Paraguayan infantry battalions and a regiment of cavalry that, determined and impetuous, forced them to retreat. However, recovered from the initial surprise and despite the heavy casualties suffered, the 1st of the Line managed to gain footing and stop the enemy's overwhelming advance, barely holding on, awaiting the sending of reinforcements with which they would resume the offensive. They do not arrive, on the contrary, they receive an unexpected order: to withdraw the battalion! This meant abandoning the field to the enemy, and what was even worse, leaving the wounded and the dead there.
Colonel Rosetti, head of the 1st Line, citing these reasons, requested that protection be sent to him to save those and also the honor of the battalion. But the response was confirmation of the previous order.(...)
Naturally, the movement towards the rear that was carried out encouraged the enemy who, undertaking the advance and reaching the abandoned field, fell with ferocious violence to kill the wounded with bayonets and collect their loot from the victory.
Moments before, one of the wounded who was left abandoned, 2nd Sergeant José María Abrego, who had a leg fractured by a bullet at thigh height (and who was later bayoneted to death), stood up and, raising his rifle, shouted in a loud voice. energetic:

-"Is it possible, comrades, that you withdraw and let us take prisoners? Come, comrades!"

Soldier Alejandro Sider, who had a bullet wound to his ankle, shouted that they should not abandon him, and other calls were heard. The battalion had moved 80 steps away when these events occurred. Colonel Rosetti, as brave as he was a noble soldier, hearing this, could not bear it and determined to disobey the order at any price, addressing his battalion he expressed:

-"It is the first time that the 1st of the Line retreats in the face of its enemies," and letting himself be carried away by this cruel idea, he tore off one of the rank loops and, throwing it at the Paraguayans, added: "I am not worthy of being their chief", and turning around he charged the enemy alone.

His words and his action made the shattered ranks of the 1st react, and upon seeing the heroic desperation of his leader, he faced the enemy and launched into combat shouting: "Long live the 1st Battalion." Infantry!"



Thus, as if obeying a mandate from history, the 1st of the Line faced the enemy and counterattacked.

His troops were dismembered, there was no order and groups of soldiers led by officers and non-commissioned officers stood out in different directions, running to meet the Paraguayans (...)
After collecting the fallen, the battalion formed a column and marched to their field and although everyone's face could clearly see the sadness that overwhelmed their spirits for the loss of so many companions, they carried in their hearts the conviction of having fulfilled their mission. word pledged by his boss, Colonel Rosetti, to the President of the Republic, when answering the speech that he addressed to the battalion when marching to the Paraguay campaign and which he concluded, saying:

"You are the first in glories and the first to appear on the battlefield to wave that flag that you have covered with glories so many times..."

To which his brave leader replied:

"Your excellent sir, you can be sure that the battalion will know how to fulfill its duty in the position assigned to it."

And so it was." (1)

There was a time of glory where people fought for the country with reckless courage, courage and camaraderie... where when one fell, it was like a sure blow to the heart, because one of the sons of the country was giving up the most sacred thing that a man has: its own life.
A time of Glory, where the Chiefs thought they were not worthy of their brave boys, and that is why they charged for Glory alongside them... alongside their men...

A time where everyone knew that:

"To perish where the freedom and independence of the country rise is the most glorious grave for the brave..."

Even if they were not leaders worthy of their men...
Although today, given their example, I am not worthy of being called ARGENTINE like they were...

Esteban D. Ocampo


(1) Giunti, Luis Leopoldo "Páginas de Gloria", Círculo Militar, pag. 88

Biography: Admiral Manuel Domecq García

From war orphan to admiral

MANUEL DOMECQ GARCÍA

By Luis Verón

Next Wednesday marks another anniversary of the battle of Acosta Ñú, during which hundreds of children were massacred in an unequal skirmish. Others survived, and there was no shortage of those who became president of the Republic of Paraguay, such as the case of Emilio Aceval. Today we will remember another survivor of the War against the Triple Alliance who, over the years, became a great personality in Argentine political life, Admiral Manuel Domecq García.


"I was then nine years old. Hundreds of hungry and scattered creatures arrived from the countryside to the capital, following the pilgrims who returned from the deserts, lost for multiple reasons, from our families or guardians, tracking them uselessly. And frightened by the who stole children in the city, those of us who could escape these persecutions fled back into the interior, wandering until we found some pious person in the nearby towns, which had been abandoned and were beginning to be populated again.

"This hunt for minors had lasted from 1869 to 1870, or until later. I went back to the town of Capiatá, taking refuge in a woman from the Mongelós family, until one of my only sisters returned from Cerro Corá, and had to pick me up. with me in the capital. My male brothers all succumbed. The incident that I have described cannot be considered an isolated case, because it was carried out systematically, since the Argentine soldiers themselves went out to walk the streets, looking for small wanderers, or the children of the same neighbors, who had returned to occupy their houses, to later distribute them, as gifts, to their relatives, as living trophies or as "captives." I have had the opportunity to meet many of these unfortunate people, both in the community. capital of Argentina, as in the towns of the provinces, before and after I remained in the army of that country.

This dramatic story was told by Bartolomé Yegros, a child survivor of the War against the Triple Alliance. Theirs was one of the many tragedies experienced by Paraguayan society in the final days of the international conflict that bloodied South America between 1865 and 1870.

Children of war

History gives us several names of children who were kidnapped and taken to neighboring countries, such as the cases of Ramón Grance, Mateo Rivas, José Cantero or Manuel Domecq García. Others were lost in the black pages of the past, as not only were they kidnapped but their own identities were stolen.

Survivors report that a few days after Asunción was taken by the allied forces, in addition to the furniture, jewelry and other looted objects, hundreds of ragged and starving children who had been kidnapped by the soldiers and carried downstream by members of the invading armies, in the midst of dramatic scenes on the part of their relatives, unable to avoid such dispossession, since strong cordons of soldiers did not allow relatives and acquaintances to approach to say goodbye to the unfortunate ones.

The case of the boy Manuel Domecq García is quite curious, because, over time, he became a notable and highly respected personality in Argentine society. He was born in the town of Tobatí on June 12, 1859 and, at just six years old, he was swept up in the maelstrom of war. His father, Tomás Domecq, a military doctor, lost his life in the siege of Humaitá, in 1868, and his mother, Mrs. Eugenia García Ramos de Domecq, would have died in the battle of Piribebuy on August 12, 1869 or due to hardships. following the Paraguayan army as a resident.

Rescued from the jaws of slavery

With the allied forces, numerous families arrived in the country that, until then, lived in exile, such as the case of the Decoud Domecq family, made up of Don Juan Francisco Decoud, second chief of the Paraguayan Legion, and his wife, Doña Concepción Domecq de Decoud, both parents of important protagonists of the national resurrection, such as Don José Segundo Decoud Domecq, journalist, conventional of 1870, minister of state and main ideologue of the National Republican Association, a political party founded in 1887. His brothers Juan José, Adolfo, Diógenes and Héctor Francisco Decoud Domecq stood out in various activities, including literature and journalism, being the founders of the first independent newspaper that the country knew.

According to a report provided by Mrs. Concepción Domecq de Decoud herself, to Dr. Estanislao S. Zeballos, the child Manuel Domecq García had been picked up by soldiers of the Brazilian occupation forces. "After the families returned to Asunción," says Dr. Zeballos, "one night when a meal was being held at the house of Mr. Decoud (Juan Francisco) to rejoice at the family reunion, some Brazilians knocked on the door. He came out. young José Segundo to inquire about the purpose of the visit, and they said that they wanted to speak with the lady.”

When Doña Concepción showed up, with two of her children, the following dialogue took place: "You are looking for a nephew, ma'am; we have one." "Bring him, then." "You need to pay us for the service" "Bring it, I will give you a pound sterling (a high figure at the time)."

The Brazilians refused to hand over the child for that sum and it was only after several minutes of bidding that the handover was agreed upon, when Mrs. Decoud offered to hand over eight pounds sterling for the ransom of the child, who was hidden in a tent in the Brazilian camp.

New loss

In the absence of the parents of the boy Manuel Tomás Domecq García and his sister Eugenia, about five years old, also rescued by her uncles, and given the climate of desolation that existed in Asunción, the children were sent to Argentina to be raised by a maternal uncle, Don Manuel García Ramos, a strong rancher of the time. At one point during the long trip to Argentina, little Manuel Domecq got lost, to the desperation of the person in charge of the children. All efforts to find him were unsuccessful, they continued their journey to Buenos Aires and informed Don Manuel García Ramos of the child's disappearance.

Faced with this situation, Don Manuel resorted to every resource available to him to recover his nephew... He appealed to many friends, both in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. He even managed to get the authorities to issue a notice that said: "Circular. Addressed to several Chiefs and Officers of the Allied Army in operations in Paraguay and other people residing in the same country, asking for news of the child Manuel Domecq who has gone missing.

We ask anyone into whose hands this form reaches, if they have any news about the whereabouts of the ten-year-old boy Manuel Domecq, white, black eyes, black hair; Please be kind enough to transmit it to the Argentine Commissioner in Asunción, Colonel D. Pedro José Agüero, directly if possible and if not to the most immediate superior, who is also requested to forward the news to said Colonel.

This child came with the lady in whose care he was, among a group of families that were collected by the allied forces last August. During the walk to the railway station the boy got tired or became ill and a Brazilian officer took him on the back of his horse and in the confusion he got lost, not being able to find him until now.

"The family that is devastated by the loss of this child will deeply thank and gratify the person who provides them with information about his whereabouts. "In Buenos Aires you can think of Peru Street on the corner of Rivadavia." This group was distributed everywhere, but, luckily, it had an effect and, after four months of agonizing waiting, the boy Manuel Tomas Domecq García was able to reunite with his uncle's family.

What happened to the child, the time he was missing again? When he was traveling to meet his uncle Manuel García Ramos, with the unconsciousness of his age, the boy decided to climb on the back of a Brazilian officer's horse, who took him to Brazil, where he was picked up by Marshal Luis Alves de Lima e Silva. , Duke of Caxías, who became so fond of him that he wanted to adopt him. Luckily, his relatives located him and his uncle traveled to Brazil to rescue him.

In Buenos Aires, the boy Manuel and his sister Eugenia went to live in the house of a sister of his mother, Mrs. Demofila García Ramos de Lanús.

Manuel the sailor

In 1873 the Argentine Naval School was founded, which operated on the ship General Brown. Called by his vocation, in 1877, the young Manuel García Domecq entered the brand new school, thus beginning a long and profitable career. He stood out as a student and graduated as a midshipman with excellent grades that made him the first in his class.

In those years, the Argentine government undertook numerous exploratory expeditions of its territory, then unknown to the authorities themselves and with the need to define its limits with neighboring countries.

The young Domecq García participated in several of these expeditions (including some to Pilcomayo), exploring distant territories and carrying out hydrographic surveys of important river courses such as the Paraná and the Yguazú. These missions led him to become one of the important experts on these issues.

In 1886 he joined the Argentine boundary commission with Brazil under the command of Commander Valentín Virasoro and composed, in addition to the young captain, of the hydrographers Niederlein and Brackhauser, Major Rohde and Lieutenant Montes. This commission worked with its Brazilian counterpart to delimit, by surveying the Pepiry-Guazú and San Antonio rivers, the true demarcation line of the border between Brazil and Argentina.

The undeniable ability of the young Paraguayan, nationalized Argentine, led him to carry out important missions commissioned by his superiors, among them being sent to contract the construction of the frigate Sarmiento, destined to be a training ship for the Argentine Navy.

After studying the various proposals from European shipyards, finally, in 1896, he contracted with the firm Laird Brothers, established in Birkenhead, England. Once the construction of the frigate Sarmiento was completed, Domecq returned to his country, being appointed commander in chief of the Río de la Plata Division.

Domecq García in Japan

By order of the government of General Julio Argentino Roca, Captain Manuel Domecq García was appointed president of the Argentine commission for the construction of the armored cruisers Moreno and Rivadavia at the Gio Ansaldo shipyard in Genova. Despite certain family problems - the death of his eldest daughter - he dedicated himself fully to supervising the construction of these two ships, the most advanced of the time in naval matters, in addition to others already delivered to the Argentine Navy: Garibaldi , San Martín, Belgrano and Pueyrredón.

But the fate of the ships whose construction was supervised by Domecq García was going to be totally different from what was planned. In 1902, Argentina signed a disarmament pact with Chile and the equalization of the naval power of both countries.

The two battleships were completed in 1904 and if they were incorporated into the Argentine fleet, the aforementioned pact would be violated. For this reason, the sale of the ships to the Empire of Japan was processed.

Domecq García, as head of the Naval Mission in Genoa, was in charge of delivering the ships to the Japanese envoys, who renamed the battleships with the names of Kasuga and Nisshin.

The Russo-Japanese War was in full swing and the Japanese Empire had invited the Argentine Government to appoint a Navy officer to attend as an observer of the war. The designation fell to Manuel Domecq García, who traveled from Genoa to the scene of war.

Observer in the Russo-Japanese War

The mission as an observer of the Russo-Japanese War was very beneficial in the career of the sailor, who gained the trust of the Japanese and had the opportunity to tour the facilities of various arsenals, the naval school, the machinists' school, etc., in addition to being on board various warships and attending more than one naval battle, some of them frankly bloody.

After almost two years in Japan, Domecq García returned to Argentina in May 1906.

The Paraguayan Domecq García, Argentine admiral

After an eventful life, knowing the horrors of a war in the middle of his childhood, carrying out exploratory expeditions, carrying out important missions abroad, among other things, on May 19, 1908, at the age of forty-nine, Manuel Tomás Domecq García received the honors of the admiralty when he was promoted to rear admiral, after a long postponement as a ship captain, serving in the Navy in different destinations.

Domecq García, the factor

Already with the palms of the admiralty, his long experience in naval matters determined that on December 17, 1908, President Figueroa Alcorta appointed him president of the naval commission in Europe. This commission had to study the proposals and collect reports from the different shipyards that would build ships to reinforce Argentine naval power.

For this purpose, he traveled again to Europe and the United States, where he commissioned the construction of the two largest warships in the world at that time and which cost the country five million pounds sterling. These two battleships were again baptized with the names Moreno and Rivadavia.

After three years at the head of the naval mission in the United States, Domecq García returned to Argentina, being appointed commander in chief of the Sea Squadron. He commanded the battleship Moreno and, now with the rank of vice admiral, he commanded the Argentine flagship, the battleship Rivadavia.

In 1922, Dr. Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear was elected President of the Republic and appointed the most prestigious sailor of the time as Minister of the Navy: Manuel Domecq García. From his ministerial functions, Domecq García was the factor in the modernization of the neighboring country's Navy, which saw its fleet increase, especially through the acquisition of submarines, which were added to the Argentine fleet, some years later.

Both President Alvear and Admiral Domecq García encouraged the construction of submarines by the Argentine Navy and promoted the equipping of a special shipyard. That shipyard was named after his main mentor: "Minister Manuel Domecq García Shipyard", recently reconditioned and reopened by the government of President Néstor Kirchner.

At the Ministry of the Navy

In his youth, Manuel Domecq García was one of the founders of the Argentine Naval Center. In 1912, he was one of the promoters of the creation of the Aeronautics of the neighboring country and, years later, as Minister of the Navy of the Argentine Republic, Manuel Domecq García was the drafter, among other things, of the project of agreement with the Republic of Uruguay for the determination of the jurisdiction of both countries over the waters that separate them; of the preliminary draft for the formation of the Argentine Overseas Merchant Navy; the remodeling of the port of Quequén and the construction of another in Uruguay Bay; of the project to exploit ferrous and plumb minerals at the Valcheta mine, among other achievements.

Being a minister, and because he met the age limit, with the recognition of the entire institution, he retired from naval activity, after fifty-eight years, four months and fourteen days of continuous service. His management was not only recognized in his country, but also abroad: King George V of England honored him with the decoration of Knight of the British Empire. Retired from public activity, the governments that came later did not hesitate to turn to the old admiral to request his wise advice.

When the war broke out that bloodied our country and Bolivia (1932-1935), Admiral Domecq García, so close to Paraguay by ties of blood and friendship, supported Paraguay's fortunes and was one of the main promoters of Argentine aid to the Paraguay.

Personally, he was the founder of the Paraguayan Red Cross Fraternal Association, which sent uniforms, blankets, food, etc. to the front, and he was a member, as a special advisor, of the Argentine commission that, chaired by the Argentine chancellor, Carlos Saavedra Lamas, finally achieved the peace agreement between the belligerents, signed in Buenos Aires on June 12, 1935.

In the postwar period, Admiral Domecq García continued to demonstrate his friendship towards Paraguay. At the desperate request of General José Félix Estigarribia, prisoner after the overthrow of President Eusebio Ayala, he welcomed the wife and daughter of the Paraguayan hero into his home and took care of mobilizing the authorities of Argentina and Brazil, to the opinion public, without forgetting the big bankers and businessmen, until finally obtaining the freedom of both prisoners.

Argentine Patriotic League

On January 16, 1919, a far-right paramilitary group called itself the Argentine Patriotic League was created in Buenos Aires and Manuel Domecq García was elected as provisional president, a position he held until April of the same year. When the general strike of rural laborers broke out in the province of Santa Cruz in November 1920, an event popularly known as Rebel Patagonia, the League enlisted to stop the strike. The League had an outstanding performance in the conflict that ended in January in 1922, with a death toll of 1,500 workers.

The meetings of this group were held in the rooms of the Military Circle, where Domecq García, together with Rear Admiral Eduardo O'Connor, distributed the weapons that the League used for its raids.

In 1938, Domecq García was one of the promoters of General Estigarribia's candidacy for the presidency of the Republic of Paraguay, telling him, among other things: "...just as in the last war the entire people of Paraguay mobilized to defend it." "You must mobilize in your government, if it arrives as I wish, that same people for work, so that the shovel and the pickaxe, instead of the rifle, are the weapons of progress."

After a long life, on January 11, 1951, at the age of ninety-two, Manuel Domecq García, that boy born in a small Paraguayan town, who knew the horrors of the war in which he lost his parents and whose fate He took to Argentina, a country he served with heroism from the wild missionary forests, the inhospitable Chaco wastelands, who actively contributed to enhancing the naval power of his adopted country, he gave his soul, after becoming deserving of the highest awards and honors. professionals, leaving behind as he died a mortgaged house and a twenty-year-old car, his uniforms, his letters and the admired memory of his Argentine compatriots. It is time for his Paraguayan compatriots to start getting to know him.

Triple Alliance War: Roca at Curupaytí

Roca at Curupaytí

Julio Argentino Roca participated in the Battle of Curupaytí, where our troops were defeated. This is how General Garmendia described that return:

“I saw Sarmiento dead – Dominguito, son of the hero –, carried in a blanket by four wounded soldiers: that livid face, full of mud, had the brutal appearance of death (…)

I saw in the distance that Roca came out alone with a torn flag; Around that glorious banner reigned the emptiness of the tomb. When he approached and avoided his sullen horse, I could make out that one of them was riding on his rump: it was Solier covered in blood. Friend had saved friend.

Rivas, so brave on that day as a General on the battlefield, I saw him moaning because of his wound. Anomaly of the brave: many times his own blood troubles them far from the heat of the slaughter.

Ayala, Calvete, Victorica, Mansilla (...) and who knows how many more, all wounded, dripping blood, retreated in silence (...).

That procession of bloody rags was endless, among which was headless Darragueira; of dying people, of unbreakable heroes, of shattered harmonies, of pieces without artillerymen, of horses without restraints (...).

Then it was that the commander-in-chief [Mitre] with his General Staff appeared before my eyes, fatigued by so much horror (...) then I just emotionally suffered the gloomy silence of the soul, that loneliness of ghosts of defeat, and I understood for the first time “In my life what was a great national disaster”

Triple Alliance War: Williams, John Hoyt (2000). "A Swamp of Blood. The Battle of Tuyuti"

Williams_Swamp of Blood

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Williams, John Hoyt (2000). "A Swamp of Blood. The Battle of Tuyuti". Military History 17 (1).

Argentine Army: General Antonio Donovan

Gral. Antonio Donovan

Antonio Dónovan (b. Buenos Aires, April 26, 1849 – † Federal, province of Entre Ríos, August 14, 1897), Argentine soldier who participated in the Paraguayan War, in the last Argentine civil wars and in the campaigns prior to the Conquest of the Desert. He was also governor of the National Territory of Chaco.


Beginnings and the Triple Alliance War
Son of Dr. Cornelius Donovan Crowley and Mary Atkins Brown, in 1863 – after the death of his father – he enrolled in the 2nd Infantry Battalion without authorization from his mother, for which he was discharged by direct order of the Minister of War and Navy, General Gelly and Obes. Shortly after, he managed to obtain maternal authorization and joined the Light Artillery Regiment in July 1864, and was assigned to Martín García Island.
After the Paraguayan invasion of Corrientes he participated in the short-lived reconquest of that city by the forces of General Wenceslao Paunero. Under his command he participated in the battle of Yatay, on August 17, 1865. He also participated in the siege of Uruguayana.
In April of the following year he participated in the capture of the Itapirú Fortress, and in the battles of Estero Bellaco, Tuyutí, Yatayty Corá, Boquerón, Sauce and Curupaytí. On October 31 he was discharged from the Argentine Army, with no reference to the cause left.
He rejoined the Army in June of the following year, in the Line Infantry Battalion No. 2, with the rank of captain. He participated in the campaign in which national forces faced and defeated General Nicanor Cáceres, defender of the legal government of that province. In 1869, his regiment went to Córdoba.
He returned to the Paraguayan front the following May, assigned to various destinations, but did not manage to fight. He returned to Buenos Aires at the end of that year.

López Jordán Rebellion
When Ricardo López Jordán's rebellion broke out in the province of Entre Ríos, he accompanied Colonel Luis María Campos as an assistant, without having communicated that decision to his regiment, which discharged him from it. However, under Campos' orders he participated in the battle of Santa Rosa and other minor combats.
In May 1871, having recently arrived in the province of Buenos Aires, he fought against the indigenous people in the Tapalqué area. Later he passed to Martín García.
In June 1873 he was assigned to Paraná, participating in the fight against López Jordán's second rebellion. In the battle of Don Gonzalo, on December 9 of that year, the infantry under the command of Major Dónovan had a decisive performance in pushing back the federals.
In February of the following year he became assistant to the Minister of War, Martín de Gainza. Under the orders of Colonel Julio Campos he participated in the campaign against the revolutionaries in 1874.
During those years he bought a field in the northern part of the province of Entre Ríos, where the town of Federal would be founded.

Dessert Campaigns and Porteño Rebellion
In February 1875 he went to Gualeguaychú, in Entre Ríos, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel. In January of the following year, transferred again to Buenos Aires, he participated in the advance of the borders ordered by Minister Adolfo Alsina, participating in the occupation of the strategic point of Carhué, later moving to the garrisons of Puán, Azul and Olavarría. In this last place he led the national troops in a battle against the indigenous chiefs Namuncurá and Juan José Catriel, on August 6, 1876, recovering some 50,000 head of cattle.
He was promoted to the rank of colonel in June 1877. He participated in several more battles against the indigenous people in the following years, and in the advanced expeditions that prepared the Conquest of the Desert in 1879, in which he did not participate due to having been incorporated into the Military College and occupy the garrison of the city of Zárate.
He participated in the repression of the Buenos Aires revolution of 1880, commanding the Infantry Regiment No. 8 in the battles of Puente Alsina and Corrales.

The 1st Infantry Regiment and the Chaco 
In February 1883 he was appointed Chief of the Infantry Regiment No. 1. Two years earlier he had been one of the founders of the Military Circle.
In August 1886 he was promoted to the rank of general, and provisionally placed in command of the 1st Army Division; He was later director of the Artillery Park, Chief of Staff of the forces stationed in Chaco, based in Resistencia. Between 1897 and 1891 he was governor of the National Territory of Chaco, and until the end of 1895 he continued to be the commander of all the military troops of Chaco, later retiring.
He died while he was in Federal on August 14, 1897.
Married to Cándida Rosa Blanco, they had 12 children. His grandson Carlos Alberto Dónovan y Salduna died in an accident, and in his memory the March of Lieutenant Dónovan, used by the Argentine cavalry, was composed.1 

References 

↑ Military march Teniente Dónovan 

Sources

[1] Revisionistas.com biography
Planell Zanone, Oscar J. y Turone, Oscar A., Patricios de Vuelta de Obligado. 
Yaben, Jacinto R., Biografías Argentinas y Sudamericanas, Bs. As., 1938. 

Wikipedia

The Paraguayan War: The Paraná Protocol

The Paraná Protocol

 
José Maria da Silva Paranhos (1819-1880)

Like those cubes that fit one inside the other, Brazil was included within the larger cube of British politics. Miter, in turn, would be the smallest hub of Brazilian diplomacy, as Captain Richard Burton himself would denounce.

Miter and his class did not enter into war, neither deceived nor naive. This general of pounds and surrenders, he knew that if war was declared “…. It would be an unprecedented event in South America, the most immoral in modern history. The Confederation has nothing to claim regarding the free navigation of the Paraguay River. Regarding the question of borders, it is not in the interest of the Republics of Silver to assist Brazil in its policy of invading foreign territory, betraying the cause of the Republic of Paraguay, our defense against the exaggerated pretensions of Brazil; and it would also be betraying our own cause, when similar issues may arise later between Brazil and the Argentine Republic.”

This was maintained by Miter against Urquiza, when he suspected that the Protocol of Paraná of December 14, 1857, which established the alliance between Brazil and the Confederation, to attack Paraguay, was about to be signed. The general's speeches and words are clarified politically in their historical context. Extracting from this quote by Miter a definitive meaning about his position favorable to Paraguay would be hermeneutically incorrect and historically false. Even the same representatives of Urquiza, in article 4 of the Paraná Protocol, had stated: “The war has only as its goal the free navigation of Paraguay in which the interest of the Confederation is secondary and remote due to its current lack of trade in those directions, would not be popular in his country, would not justify the Argentine Government before the national public opinion of abandoning the contemporary policy that has been prescribed until today, despite the serious damages that result from the deplorable system that the Paraguayan Government insists on.

“…That an alliance of the two States to draw their borders with Paraguay, a State weaker than either of them, would be odious and could seriously compromise the results that both promise to obtain.”.

Upon signing the Protocol of Paraná, on December 14, 1857, Paranhos gave the following “significant toast”: “I wish to see the closest union between the Empire and the Confederation realized, and that the glory of Caseros is not the only glory acquired.” in common for Brazil and the Argentine Nation.”

In a “confidential” from José Manuel Estrada to Wenceslao Paunero, dated December 24, 1868, it is clarified: “…The Government of Urquiza, which in 1857 was courting Brazil to bring it into an alliance against Buenos Aires and obtain loans, without which "He could not carry out what he called the war of reconstruction, that year he concluded a treaty with Mr. Paranahos in which he undertook to hand over the slaves who escaped from Brazil." This treaty was, effectively, another of those signed in Paraná on that occasion. Urquiza's “objectives” were exactly as described. For this reason, Pelham Horton Box rightly says “…in the agreements between Brazil, the Argentine Confederation and Uruguay, of 1856 and 1857, we already see the outline of the Triple Alliance of 1865.”

Miter would participate in the war, despite the position publicly held in 1857, because with it he consolidated his political alliance with the Brazilian Empire and ensured his triumph over the federals. With the alliance, on the other hand, the cycle begun with Urquiza, of financial-political dependence, with respect to Brazil, that is to say, England, was continued.

The price of the “repressive” tranquility of the provincial interior had been previously regulated by Baring Brothers, Rothschild and the Foreign Office. In Argentina, the livestock class, “exporter-importer”, urged Bartolomé Mitre. The newspaper of Melchor Rom – director of the Stock Exchange and one of the eminent representatives of that class – dreamed of the appropriation of Guaraní tobacco and yerba. His imagination as an economic speculator would cause the Paraguayan lands to be traveled, in his dreams, by Buenos Aires cattle.

Seduced by Mitrist rhetoric, a coincidental sublimation of their class interests, the young “autonomists” and “nationalists”, with aristocratic roots, would voluntarily enlist, commanded by their philosophy professors, to put an end to Paraguayan “barbarism”. “After the triumph of Paraguay,” said “La Nación Argentina” in December 1864, “the reign of barbarism will continue for us (…) As Argentines, then, and as enemies of barbarism and dictatorship, we hope that, if the Paraguayan government carries on the war is defeated by Brazil (...) no one can doubt the situation that awaits us if Paraguay triumphs."

After Curupaytí, Mitre's “nationalists” would be replaced by paid mercenaries or the unemployed. The mercenaries were Europeans, hired by Hilario Ascasubi in France. The couplings were made in Marseille and Bordeaux. Hundreds of men were embarked monthly on ships of the “Societé General des Transport Maritime”. The contracts were accompanied by a medical certificate of health of the mercenaries, and the statement of two witnesses, which proved that they knew how to handle weapons. All formalities were completed at the Argentine Consulate in Marseille or Bordeaux. The unemployed Argentines, in turn, were men who, destroyed by free trade the tasks of craftsmanship and industry that flourished under Juan Manuel de Rosas, were distressed and without work, forced to look for a “military” occupation.

All of them would go to carry out the bloody British plan on Guarani land.

Uruguay, converted into a political appendage of Brazilian-Mitrista diplomacy, after its national defeat, would participate through Venancio Flores in the war. The 5,000 men that he will send to their deaths will justify the geometric increase in his public debt, due to the measured “efforts” of the Baron of Mauá and the London bankers. The convention of October 12, 1851, had determined that the Eastern Republic of Uruguay was obliged to apply all its resources to the payment of the Brazilian debt. But, from this obligation, at the request of Brazil itself, the loans that Uruguay had obtained in London had been excluded. This requirement would be repeated in the protocol of 1867, and conclusively demonstrates the total dependence of Brazilian Banking on the English one. The credits of the Brazilian Empire were, in reality, British credits, which could not be settled with English money. León de Palleja, despite his position as an allied officer, would express the authentic Uruguayan thought: “I was not a supporter of this (war); Everyone knows my ideas in this regard, but I consider it a stupid war to wage between Orientals and Paraguayans. Nations of identical origin and causes; although by different means, they are destined to maintain a common policy and to be sisters and not enemies…”

The war seemed an irrational fact, but the world was experiencing the transformation of the export of merchandise into the export of capital, and South America was the favorable victim of that transformation, deeply “rational” for British interests.

Cotton, free navigation, loans, limits, commercial profits, industrial destruction, political power, ambition and fear, marked the war of the Double Alliance, between Financial Capital and local oligarchies. Drama of American characters, with a hidden protagonist and author: England, revealed, through the few traces left in its lethal path.

Faced with this plexus of interests and relationships, the Paraguayan people, with their statesman at the helm. The armed people, defending their economic freedom, their protectionist tariff, their closure of rivers, their agricultural production, their industry, their railroad, their telegraph.

But above all, sovereign Paraguay, defending the balance of the Río de la Plata, that is, the “American Union”, against the attack prepared by the foreign power.

Anticipating what would happen, Rosas had written to Carlos Antonio López a dozen years ago: “that he hoped for his happiness and for God to preserve him without admitting foreigners, who are bad locusts.”
Felipe Varela, director of the “American System” would say of the War, in an ephemeral moment of truce:

“… The war with Paraguay was an event already calculated, premeditated by General Mitre (...) The Argentine provinces, however, have never participated in these feelings, on the contrary, those people have contemplated, groaning, the defection of the President, imposed by the bayonets, on the Argentine blood, of the principles of the American Union, in which they have always looked to the safeguarding of their rights and their freedom, taken in the name of justice and the law”.

And that thought would be the fraternal echo of the high Paraguayan patriotic expression, synthesized in the doctrine of the balance of the Río de la Plata, which Francisco Solano López proclaimed, with just pride before all his people.

Full text of the Paraná Protocol

On the fourteenth day of the month of December, one thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven, in this city of Paraná, the Plenipotentiaries of the Argentine Confederation, doctors Don Santiago Derqui and Don Bernabé López, and the Plenipotentiary of YE. the Emperor of Brazil, Counselor José María da Silva Paranhos, agreed to record in writing the results of their conferences, on the means that their respective Governments should use to obtain from the Republic of Paraguay a satisfactory solution to the pending issues, which they say regarding common river navigation as well as the declarations that the same Plenipotentiaries made in the name of both Governments, presupposing the case that war becomes inevitable to achieve that goal that is of such interest to both countries and to civilization and commerce in general.
It was agreed at the same time that this document must be kept in the most complete confidentiality and is intended only to inform the two Governments of the circumstances and dispositions that each of them has towards the Republic of Paraguay, taking into account that , in any case they can mutually bring together all the good offices inherent to the benevolent and close relations that so happily exist between them and the peoples whose destinies they preside over.
Being an obligation contracted by the Empire of Brazil and the Argentine Confederation, in the Alliance Agreements of 1851, confirmed and again stipulated in the Treaty of March 7, 1856, and in the river Convention of November 20 of the present year, the invitation and use of all means within the reach of each of the two Governments so that the other coastal States and especially the Republic of Paraguay, adhere to the same principles of free navigation as well as the means of making them effectively useful, said Plenipotentiaries agreed:

1. In that the Government of the Argentine Confederation, based on the aforementioned stipulations and the special conditions that exist between it and that of the Republic of Paraguay, for the free transit enjoyed by the Paraguayan flag in the waters of the Paraná, belonging to the same Confederation and by the Treaty of July 29, 1856, will demand of said Republic that for its part it opens the Paraguay River to all flags and adopts in relation to common transit the franchises and means of Police and inspection that are generally used and found stipulated in the River Convention of November 20 between the Confederation and the Empire of Brazil.
2. In that the Government of the Confederation as well as that of Brazil will maintain said claim with the greatest possible effort, being however free to each of them to ensure that their claims reach the point of leaving diplomatic channels and compromising the state of peace. in which they find themselves with that neighboring State, given that the Government of the Confederation and the Imperial Government are not yet in agreement on the hypothesis of resorting to war.
   
3. In that, to make possible, as both Governments so desire, a peaceful solution to the pending issues with the Republic of Paraguay, regarding river navigation, both may stop insisting on the general concession and ultimately limit their claims, to that the Paraguayan Government effectively guarantees all its freedom of transit to its respective flags, according to the means indicated in the river Convention of November 20 of this year, each Government invoking its perfect right to this free transit, in view of the treaties in force between them and that of that Republic. 
4. In that, the claim of the Government of the Confederation will be made in a way that coincides with the special mission that the Government of H.M. The Emperor of Brazil now sends to the Republic of Paraguay with the demand that in the same sense and at the same time direct the Government of the Eastern State of Uruguay.

Sources

• Efemérides – Patricios de Vuelta de Obligado
• Peña, R. O. y Duhalde. E. – Felipe Varela – Schapire editor – Buenos Aires (1975).
• www.revisionistas.com.ar

Triple Alliance War: Riachuelo, the Greatest Naval Battle in America

Riachuelo

On June 11, 1865, the largest naval battle in America was fought, at the site where the water course called Riachuelo flows, located at the mouth of the Paraná River at its conjunction with the Paraguay River, a few kilometers from the city of Corrientes, over Argentine waters. That area of the province of Corrientes was at that time in the power of Paraguayan troops, so they had control of the coast.

By early 1865, Solano López was determined to take control of the Paraná River in the first place to control an entire future cleansing of the Río de la Plata. If he were successful in sneaking up on the Brazilian imperial fleet in the lower waters of the river then he would achieve an important victory that would enable deeper land operations in the future.

Surprise would be essential. At the end of 1864 the Paraguayan navy consisted of 17 small vessels of various sizes. Only two of them, Anhambay and Tacuarí, were built as gunboats. During the 1860s López was hoping to get new ironclads added to his fleet. He maintained contacts with some European countries to obtain these ships. This project, however, had to be abandoned due to financial problems.

The imperial fleet, on the other hand, fielded 45 vessels, 33 steamships and 12 sailing ships at the beginning of the war. The force had at its disposal a total manpower of almost 2,400 officers and men. The main units were the Niterói propeller type and the Amazonas rear-bladed propeller boat. The fleet, however, had a major defect: it had been designed for the high seas rather than for river operations.



On June 8, the Paraguayan fleet was concentrated in Asunción for the departure towards the fortress of Humaitá. López himself was aboard the Tacuarí. The entire population of the capital was present to witness the departure. At the end of the morning the ships left for the fortress. As soon as he arrived in Humaitá on the morning of the next day, López immediately began to prepare the attack against the enemy squadron located near Corrientes, in a width called Riachuelo, which gave support to the land forces of the Triple Alliance to expel the Paraguayans of Corrientes. He gathered the bulk of the Paraguayan armada to hit the Brazilian ships at dawn on June 11. The squadron consisted of eight ships, the flagship Tacuarí, the recently arrived Paraguarí, built in England, the captured Brazilian steamship Marquês de Olinda and the Ygureí, Ybera, Yporá, Jejuí, Salto Oriental and the Pirabebé. Along with the ships, six low flat-bottomed barges with an eight-inch gun each, known as flatboats, would be towed to confront the enemy. The squadron numbered 36 guns. Commodore Pedro Ignacio Meza would order the assault. In addition, the Paraguayan ships would have the support of a cannon battery under the command of Colonel José Maria Bruguez placed along the river coastline.

The Brazilian squadron anchored near Corrientes formed the Amazonas (flagship) and the ships Jequitinhonha, Belmonte, Parnaíba, Ipiranga, Mearin, Iguatemi, Araguarí and the Beberibé. The total firepower of the squadron amounted to 59 guns. Admiral Francisco Manuel Barroso was in command of the ships.

Meza must sail downstream of the Paraná during dawn on June 11 to reach the enemy around dawn. The surprise would compensate for the fact that the Paraguayan ships were outgunned. At two in the morning the fleet left Humaitá. At five o'clock the chatas assembled the ships. Despite this, a problem with the Iberá's engine delayed the plan.

Battle Plan


Only at nine o'clock, in the broad light of day, the ships reached Riachuelo.

After placing the chatas near the coast, Meza led his ships directly into the enemy to split the Imperial squadron in two.

Barroso's ships were anchored near the confluence of the Paraná and two narrow channels. The attack, if not entirely a surprise, occurred when Barroso's ships were lined up toward the coast.

Meza's squadron passed over the enemy ships sending fire on them. Each of his ships chooses a ship to pawn. Soon the Amazonas was under fire from the Tacuarí, while the Ipiranga exchanged fire with the Salto.

Google Map of the battle zone

In the battle the two squadrons changed positions. Meza was below the squadron and cut off by the enemies from his base in Humaitá. The Paraguayan commander then adopted the strategy of luring the enemies into the lower channels where they would not be able to maneuver as well as the Paraguayans did.

The Jequitinhonha, Barroso's largest ship after the Amazon, was struck on a sandbank. This made him an easy target for Bruguez's ruthless artillery.

The Belmonte was hit several times by the chatas' fire.

The Parnaíba hit the coast and was set adrift. Several Paraguayan ships soon surrounded her. The Marquês de Olinda boarded the Brazilian ship and a deadly combat occurred on the deck of Parnaíba. On several occasions, the Paraguayans tried to take command of the ship. Only with the iron resistance of the Parnaíba crew did he save the ship. Finally, a final assault was expelled and the ship slid away from the enemy.

At this point, things began to change.

Despite the difficulties in maneuvering, the superior firepower of Barroso's ships began to show effectiveness. The Jejuí was sunk by nearby fire from Brazilian ships. The Marquês de Olinda caused her boilers to explode and she was out of action. The Paraguarí was hit by the Amazon and was left helpless. Meza gave orders to retreat. At 1 P.M. the combat was over. Of the eight Paraguayan vessels, only four returned to Humaitá. The others were sunk, captured or left stranded on a sandbank (this included the Paraguarí, the Jejuí, the Marquês de Olinda and the Salto Oriental). Two flatboats were sunk and the other four remained in Brazilian hands. A few days later, however, the Paraguayans succeeded in removing the Paraguarí, sending the ship to Asunción for repairs. The Paraguayan casualties are not known exactly. Brazilian assumptions of 1,000 casualties are probably exaggerated. Perhaps this number is between 300 and 400 (Brazilian sources say it can reach 750).

Meza died a few days later in Humaitá from the wounds he received during the battle.

The imperial squadron lost one ship, the Jequitinhonha while two other vessels, the Parnaíba and Belmonte were severely damaged. The Ipiranga was slightly damaged. Barroso had 104 men killed, 123 wounded and 20 lost.

The Paraguayans failed in the attempt to have the entire power of the Paraná River from Asunción to Montevideo. Furthermore, they would not be able to replace the lost ships. While Brazil added new units to the fleet.




Remarks

• I would highlight the fact that in the river the East-West escape and maneuver axes are considerably smaller. For this reason and due to the number of ships used, the battle had to have a lot of congestion between so many ships and ships giving back to the cannon shots. Another issue was the loss of surprise of the attack given that the Iberá broke down. This caused the attack to begin at 9 AM when it was planned for 5 AM. It was a failure of surprise that added light to the scenario to the detriment of the Paraguayan plan. As in Tuyuty, the loss of surprise caused a good initial attack plan to falter. (SiberianSky, FDRA moderator).
• "...largest naval battle in America"... The most paradoxical thing is that this action was in a river (Mongoose, FDRA moderator).