Argentina: British-origin Sailors Death In Argentine Service

British Sailors Death in Argentine Service

Independence War: The Last Day of Güemes

The Last Day of Güemes Among Us

On the night of June 7, 1821, at the corner of Belgrano and Balcarce streets in the city of Salta, Martín Miguel de Güemes was wounded and fled with his gauchos in search of shelter. Despite his injury, the hero did not fall from his saddle and, mounted on his horse, crossed the Campo de la Cruz. Entering the Chachapoya ravine, he headed east to a post located about 8 km from the city of Salta, in La Lagunilla, known as the house of Doña Pancha Luna.

Colonel Eusebio Mollinedo, who was with him that fateful day, wrote in his accounts:

“...Seriously wounded in the spine by a gunshot from an enemy patrol, and after enduring excruciating pain with the fortitude forged by the hardships of war, we reached the post at La Lagunilla... There he was assisted and could rest.”

From that location, a message was sent to Commander Ríos, who was waiting with the rest of the escort at Tincunaco, to inform the troops encamped at Campo de Velarde about the situation and join the group. Additionally, Father Francisco Fernández was notified of the general’s condition.

Commander Ríos and his soldiers, along with Father Fernández, improvised a stretcher to carry the wounded Güemes and continued the journey toward the “Las Higuerillas” estate. The path included only a few mild hills that were easily crossed, followed by flat terrain leading to the estate house.

They arrived without major issues and waited for a large contingent of patriot troops and the party led by Captain Cabral, who was bringing the physician Dr. Antonio Castellanos. There, General Güemes received initial medical attention.

Dr. Castellanos diagnosed the severity of the wound and began to suspect a very poor prognosis.

With better organization and supplies, those present realized the need to protect the wounded General from enemy forces, so they resumed the march through the "Cañada de la Higuera", heading toward the "Higuera" outpost.

“...At the spot known as La Higuera, four leagues southeast of the starting point, he was extremely weak due to blood loss...”

This outpost’s location was highly secure and strategic, as it was close to the estates La Cruz and La Quesera, where Güemes had burial grounds for his gauchos.

However, in his critical condition, the hero could go no further. Under the shade of a cebil tree, he awaited his inevitable fate with the dignity of one who gives his life for the Fatherland.
Thus, the martyr of our Nation began his journey toward immortality.

Source: Illustrated Güemesian Ephemerides and Others
Image: Güemes wounded.

San Martín: Tactical Genius in Crossing the Mountain Range

San Martin's genius in facing the mountain range

Revista Cumbres
Special collaboration: Esteban Ocampo


On the bicentennial of the impressive crossing of the Andes led by the great American strategist, a review of the planning and logistics devised to overcome the great obstacle.

 

The immensity of the mountain range was the obstacle to overcome.

Last February marked the 200th anniversary of the Crossing of the Andes, which General José de San Martín de Mendoza led to Chile in 1817 with the Liberation Army, in order to fight the royalists in their search for continental independence as part of his Strategic Plan.

The campaign has been highlighted on numerous occasions as one of the most intrepid, bold and strategically brilliant feats of all time.

Aside from the strictly military aspect and its political connotations of the time, it is worth highlighting logistical and planning aspects, strategies that San Martín devised to first battle the immense mountain range in the real conditions of 2 centuries ago.

“Much emphasis is placed on the crossing and the end with the battle of Chacabuco, but we must speak of the crossing as a military campaign, something specifically prepared whose consequence was the liberation of Chile. "Only in this way can the genius of a certain José de San Martín be contemplated" explains historian Esteban Ocampo, one of the members of the campaign who recreated the crossing this year, faithfully respecting the conditions of the time. (See separate)

Six columns

San Martín designed the campaign dividing the Army into six columns on a front of 800 km from the south of La Rioja to the south of Mendoza, where the southernmost group crossed.

Two of these passes were main ones through which the bulk of the Army of 2,500 men circulated. The other passes were auxiliary ones with columns that were not very numerous and with the intention of distracting and dispersing the enemy forces in specific missions -already in Chile- so that they would not have all their power at their disposal in the battle of Chacabuco.

A main column advanced along the Uspallata route under the orders of Colonel Gregorio de Las Heras together with the artillery under the command of Fray Luis Beltrán. The pass, accessible and low, was very used for trade at the time.

The other important column went through San Juan, the Los Patos route through Valle Hermoso which was divided into Ojo de Agua and Paso de Ortiz, where part of the advance party passed, and the Yaretas pass, where San Martín actually crossed.

The secondary routes were Comecaballos in La Rioja with Lt. Col. Zelada; Guana, north of San Juan under orders of Lt. Col. Cabot; Portillo-Piuquenes, through the Tunuyán valley from the Fort of San Carlos under the orders of Captain Lemos; and Planchón, south of Mendoza through the area of ​​the Peteroa volcano in charge of Lt. Col. Freyre.

 

One of the many rivers they had to wade through in the Andean campaign.

Clothing

The traditional uniforms were made of a very particular cotton cloth, a type of fabric that was thermal enough to not be too hot in summer but was warm enough in winter. Under the jacket they wore a high-necked shirt and the officers also wore a vest.

In the case of the Grenadier Regiment they received short red jackets made of sheepskin called “pellizas” that they wore as a coat over the jacket. They also wore black cloth trousers with leather reinforcement. Most of the soldiers wore Cuyo ponchos and cloth cloaks with a warm inner lining.

The trousers had a leather reinforcement to prevent wear from rubbing against the saddle in the case of the riders and on the cuff to protect the clothing from damage from the stirrups.

To keep their feet warm, each soldier used “tamangos,” a kind of sheepskin covering that was placed over their shoes, which were usually made of leather with buckles. In the case of the Infantry, they called a boot a short, mid-calf or even knee-high gaiter that went over the shoes.

For their hands they wore cloth gloves, for their heads they covered the back of their necks and ears with scarves, and on top of that they wore a “head cover,” a cap or hat, a kind of beret that they wore during training in the barracks. In other units they wore caps with sleeves that fell to one of the shoulders.

The regiments wore three uniforms: the barracks uniform, the campaign or combat uniform, and the parade or gala uniform, the latter being the most striking. The one used for crossing was the combat uniform.

At night, very simple reinforced cloth tents were set up in less than 3 minutes. They had four poles and two guy lines, one in front and one behind. Each tent accommodated 2 to 3 soldiers and they used individual saddles, fleeces and blankets as beds, and even the saddle served as a pillow. They covered themselves with the same coat as each other.

 
San Martín's first great challenge was to overcome nature.

Food

As the main food to face the crossing of the high peaks, each soldier carried a piece of charqui that they ground and cooked quickly in a kind of Valdivian broth with lots of onion and garlic for altitude sickness. They were meals in the style of carbonada or succulent stew that provided a significant amount of protein with the simplicity of preparing it in a few minutes to immediately recover strength.

The Army also carried 700 cattle on the hoof that they slaughtered as the columns advanced. Thus, fresh meat was available as a roast or stew.

Bread, flour biscuits, vegetables, nuts and a daily ration of liquor completed the diet to avoid the effects of altitude and cold, since that was what the campaign's food plan was about, which also resulted in simple and quick food to prepare.

Logistics

Each column on its march itinerary had a detailed description of each day: the points they had to join, the length in leagues, the availability of water, grass and firewood, the type of terrain and forest. This information was useful for the guides to regulate the march and thus reach the planned points.

The instructions began with the following text: “You will advance according to prudence, your experience and the intelligence you have to comply with these orders.”

Communications through messengers were also very important. It is known that San Martín sent constant messages to Las Heras to speed up or slow down the march depending on the tactics. In the diary of Bernardo O’Higgins, the vanguard of the Los Patos route, these communications are recorded, which he sent to San Martín in the rearguard.

The central concept of the plan to cross the Andes was to minimize any problem, error or imponderable when facing the mountain. In 1816, the Great General confessed in a letter to Tomás Guido that what kept him awake at night was not the opposition, what the enemy might be preparing on the other side, but being able to cross this mountain range with 5,000 men and then give battle.

The precise and coordinated arrival of the columns on February 8, 1817, to Santa Rosa de los Andes was the result of precision in communications and efficiency in planning. This made the achievement possible and led to the military triumph of Chacabuco. Crossing the mountain range having fulfilled the objectives designed was half the battle won.

 

The group that designed and carried out a historical recreation of the San Martin crossing.

A faithful recreation

A group of people who make up the Historical Cavalry Squadron crossed the Andes last February, emulating and paying homage to the liberating feat and in exactly the same conditions as the Army formed and led by General José de San Martín in 1817 did 200 years ago.

Without any technological aid, dressed in the same clothing and sleeping in period tents, on February 3, 2017 (what a date) six “reenactors,” a cameraman, and three guides who traveled through the Argentine side took the initial step from the San Juan town of Tamberías to realize a dream and a feat that they have been planning since the end of 2015.

The preparation included a lot of personal training, constant medical checkups, horseback riding practice, all to be able to face eight to ten hours of mounted marching every day at altitudes above 3,500 meters.

They used clothes made with the same fabrics used in the San Martin Army, the same tents, blankets, utensils such as lanterns, candles, sabers, all derived from a deep historical investigation to reproduce the feat faithfully.

The saddles served as beds at night, and the same poncho as a coat was a blanket to try to sleep in the middle of the relentless cold of the mountain range.

Pablo Zamprogno, Esteban Ocampo and his son Martín (10), Javier Madariaga, Guadalupe Strada and Daniel Gwaszdac are the members of the Reenactors Group of the Historical Cavalry Squadron. The itinerary was approximately the one taken by the column led by Lt. Col. Juan Manuel Cabot in 1817, through the North of the province of San Juan known as Guana Pass. After six days of travel through La Vega Grande, Los Azules, Los Esteros de la Mula and La Cuesta, they arrived at “Paso del Gordito” where Chilean authorities from Monte Patria and Ovalle welcomed them to cross the border. Then came Las Ramadas, Tulahuen, Huana, Monte Patria, Ovalle, Barraza and finally Coquimbo and La Serena, the final objective of the great enterprise, always received by the towns with great joy and emotional recognition.

The objective of the initiative was to experience the crossing of the Andes as San Martin's soldiers experienced it 200 years ago. The result, in the evaluation made by its protagonists, was highly satisfactory and a reason for greater admiration for those men who accompanied the Liberator in 1817.

Argentina-Chile Naval Race: 1890-1905 (2/13)

Naval Race between Argentina and Chile, 1890-1905

Part 1 || Part 2 || Part 3 || Part 4

What was happening on the other side of the Cordillera?

As in all countries that wanted to emancipate themselves from Spanish power, at the beginning of the War of Independence, Chile did not have any warships, much less suitable crews for them. Given the above, the territorial defense plan did not involve a political policy at all. naval but to defeat the Spanish army on land 1.

Viceroy Abascal highlighted the Warren Frigates in Valparaíso, with the purpose of blocking the port, in order to boycott the insurgents' trade. It should be noted that Chile had declared free trade in its ports for all ships in the world.

José Miguel Carrera wrote to Francisco de La Lastra (governor of Valparaíso), with the aim of putting some ships under arms and lifting the blockade. This request, at the cost of efforts (popular spending, credits, etc.), managed to equip two named ships. like Perla and Potrillo 2, part of the weapons used were from a Portuguese merchant ship, which were seized by the government of Chile 3.

It was thought that once the blockade was broken, the “Chilean Fleet” could join the Argentine corsairs and harass Callao, but this did not happen, once both ships set sail, the Perla joined the Warren and both They attack Potrillo, thus ending the attempts to provide Chile with a squadron, during the Patria Vieja, the above happened on May 2, 1813.

Towards 1813 the United States and England were at war, given the above, the United States sent the frigate Essex to the South Pacific with the mission of harassing the English whalers that operated in this water. Thanks to this, Chile's trade benefited due to that the Essex's prizes were traded in Valparaíso, a situation that ended a year later when the Essex was captured by an English fleet 4.

Thanks to the Argentine privateers, the transportation of cargo from the Viceroyalty of Peru to Chile suffered setbacks, which hindered the military deployments of the Governor of Chile Marco Del Pont. In this way, added to Rodríguez's actions on land, it was possible for the Spanish army to It will be dispersed throughout the territory, facilitating the task of crossing the Andes to San Martín 5.

After the triumph of the Andes Army in Chacabuco, thanks to a stroke of audacity, the then Argentine Ensign Isidoro Suárez, captured the Spanish brig Águila 6 in Valparaíso, being incorporated as the first unit into the nascent Chilean navy, and was armed with 16 cannons and placed in the hands of the Irishman Raimundo Morris rescued the patriotic prisoners imprisoned on Juan Fernández Island. On January 16, 1818, O'Higgins and Minister Zenteno promulgated the decree allowing the promotion of roe deer patents 7.

After the patriotic triumph in the battle of Chacabuco, San Martín as commander in chief of the army of the Andes and O'Higgins as supreme director of Chile together with his minister of war and navy José Ignacio Zenteno dedicated themselves to the task of creating an navy With the objective of disputing the sea with the Spanish crown, for this purpose emissaries were sent abroad and ships and other equipment were acquired. The ships acquired were the Navío San Martín (64 guns), Frigate Lautaro (46 guns), Corvette Chacabuco ( 20 guns), Brigantín Araucano (16 guns), with these ships the capture of the frigate María Isabel and the other transports was carried out, this happened on October 28, 1818 8.

At the end of 1818, Thomas A. Cochrane, a Scot, arrived in Valparaíso to take charge of the nascent squadron. I will not detail the naval actions of this period given its length and because it is not relevant in this part of the forum.

The Chilean squadron then consisted of nine warships; but on August 10, the brig Pueyrredón was dispatched in charge of Captain Don Guillermo Prunier to take the most complicated individuals in the April conspiracy to the coast of New Granada, and the corvette Chacabuco was destined to remain in Valparaíso, under the command of Captain Juan José Tortel. The ships that were on the expedition were the following 9:

Almirante O 'Higgins Frigate

Cannons: 50
Crew: 516
Commander: Tomás Crosby

San Martín Ship

Cannons: 64
Crew: 492
Commander: Guillermo Wilkinson

Frigate Lautaro

Cannons: 50
Crew: 353
Commander: Martín Jorge Guise

Independencia Corvette

Cannons: 28
Crew: 256
Commander: Roberto Forster

Araucano Brigantine

Cannons: 16
Crew: 106
Commander: Tomás Carter

Brig Galvarino

Cannons: 18
Crew: 114
Commander: Juan Spry

Schooner Moctezuma

Cannons: 7
Crew: 87
Commander: Juan Esmonds

 
Cochrane left Chile in January 1823 and the ships of the squadron were demobilized from service. To face the Chiloé campaigns he found it necessary to hastily arm the ships and when Chiloé fell into the hands of Chile (beginning of 1826, last Spanish redoubt in America), the entire squadron was declared disarmed.

Given the poverty of the national treasury, in April 1826, the frigate María Isabel Maria Isabel (O'Higgins) and the corvettes Independencia and Chacabuco were put up for sale, being acquired by Argentina due to the urgency of the war they were fighting with Brazil over the Banda Oriental (Cisplatina), only the Chacabuco arrived in Buenos Aires but its condition was poor, the others sank in Talcahuano (Independencia), and Cape Horn (Maria Isabel) 10.

It should be noted that given the tremendous economic efforts for Chile to face the liberation expedition of Peru, the maintenance of the ships was deficient and the sailors were unpaid. By mid-1826, the squadron was disarmed and the naval school closed, leaving only the brig Aquiles in operational status.

The navy would only emerge again in 1836 before the war against the Peru-Bolivian confederation (1836-1839), when it began it only had the Brig Aquiles and the Schooner Colo Colo, then this fleet was increased by 5 more ships, given the capture of the boat Santa Cruz, the brig Arequipeño and the schooner Peruviana in Callao, plus the capture of General Freire of the frigate Monteagudo, brig Orbegoso 11.

Once the conflict was over, the squad again declared disarmament, maintaining only a few units for the needs of the service. In 1843, President General Manuel Bulnes Prieto (Who directed the 1838 campaign against the Peru-Bolivia confederation), ordered Captain Juan Guillermos to took possession of the Strait of Magellan, at that time Juan Guillermos was maritime governor of Chiloé, in the city of Ancud, he dedicated himself to the construction of a schooner (which would be named Ancud), to carry out the requested undertaking.

It is not the topic of the present to address the border disputes between Chile and Argentina but, as the topic indicates, to address the arms race between Chile and Argentina between the 19th century until the May Pacts, the above is only due to a very brief historical review of the navies of both countries.

Between the years 1840 and 1863, the Chilean navy experienced a great decline, a powerful ship was commissioned from France but it was built with poor materials so its useful life was short (Chile Frigate).

During that period there were not enough funds to order the construction of steamships. Given the lack, the decision was made to build them in Chile precisely in the Constitución and Valparaíso shipyards. In 1852, the corvette Esmeralda was commissioned in England (which was sunk in the Naval Battle). of Iquique in 1879), in this way at the beginning of the war with Spain (1864-1866), Chile only had the Esmeralda and the Vapor Maipú (strictly speaking, only the Esmeralda was a warship), in the face of this contingency and after the Chinchas Islands were taken in 1863, it was decided to commission the acquisition of the corvettes Chacabuco and O'Higgins, in 1865 the schooner Covadonga was captured and in 1866 two more corvettes were acquired (Abtao and Pampero), only the first of them arriving. , and Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna acquires in the United States 4 wheeled steamers called Poncas (Ñuble), Isabella (Concepción), Shaw Nork (Arauco) and Cheroke (Ancud) all in poor condition 12, this due to the failure of the negotiations for the acquisition of Dundemberg 13.

With the exception of the Abtao, none of these ships arrived for the war. At the end of the war, Chile had 9 naval units, viz.

Corvettes: Esmeralda, Abtao, Chacabuco and O`Higgins (these arrived in 1868).
Schooner: Virgin of Covadonga.
Steamers: Ñuble, Concepción, Arauco and Ancud.

The 4 steamers were lost in accidents or storms, in which their poor integrity was the fundamental cause.

So far I leave this brief review of the navy since its creation. From here on, a process of arms race between the republics of Chile and Argentina begins slowly but steadily, which would end momentarily with the pacts of May 1902.

Sources

1. El poder Naval y la Independencia de Chile, Donald E. Worcester, Editorial Francisco de Aguirre, 1971, Argentina, pagina 3. 
2. Breve Historia Naval de Chile, Carlos López Urrutia, Editorial Francisco de Aguirre, 1976, Argentina, pagina 27. 
3. Donald E. Worcester, obra citada, página 8 
4. Donald E. Worcester, obra citada, página 14 
5. Obras citadas de López Urrutia y Worcester y pagina web de la armada de Chile  
6. Biografías Argentina y Sudamericanas, Capitán de Fragata Jacinto R. Yaben, Editorial Metrópolis, talleres Gráficos Contreras, Argentina pagina 767. 
7. El libertador Bernardo O`Higgins Riquelme, editorial Lord Cochrane, Santiago, paginas 137-138
8. Breve Historia Naval de Chile, Carlos López Urrutia, Editorial Francisco de Aguirre, 1976, Argentina, paginas 36-38. 
9. Tomado textual del Tomo XII, Historia General de Chile, Diego Barros Arana, Editorial Universitaria – Centro de Estudios Diego Barros Arana, Santiago 2005, Página 456, segunda edición. 
10. La Armada de Chile: Desde la Alborada al Sesquicentenario (1813-1968), Rodrigo Fuenzalida Bade. Santiago, Chile: 1978, Empresa Periodística Aquí Está, Tomo II página 364-365. 
11. La Armada de Chile: Desde la Alborada al Sesquicentenario (1813-1968), Rodrigo Fuenzalida Bade. Santiago, Chile: 1978, Empresa Periodística Aquí Está, Tomo II página 399-402. 
12. La Guerra Entre España y las Republicas del Pacífico, Alfonso Cerda Catalán, Editorial Puerto de Palos, Chile páginas 219. 
13. 10 Months of Mission to the United States as Confidential Agent of Chile, Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna, Imprenta de la Libertad, Santiago 1867, Volumes I and II, Volume II There is a report that Mackenna presented to the executive as an account of his mission, This report corresponds to Appendix V, in Volume I some details of the negotiations appear.

Argentina-Chile Naval Race, 1890-1905 (1/13)

Argentina-Chile Naval Race, 1890-1905 

Part 1 || Part 2 || Part 3 || Part 4

Organic Growth and Development of the Argentine Navy: 1810-1902

Although the May Revolution of 1810 marked the end of the colonial era in Buenos Aires, Montevideo, on the opposite bank of the Plata, remained in the hands of the royalists. From this station, a powerful and well-trained squadron under the command of Captain Jacinto de Romarate soon established a blockade of Buenos Aires and threatened to cut the lines of communication along the coast. The patriot authorities reacted quickly and in August acquired three merchant ships, suitable to be transformed into warships. These were: the brig "25 de Mayo", the schooner "Invencible", and the sloop "Americano". An Argentine veteran of the Battle of Trafalgar, and former lieutenant of the Spanish navy, Francisco de Gurrucharaga dedicated himself vigorously to equipping this small squadron. The poverty of the treasury, the lack of trained personnel and materials complicated his task. The command of this flotilla was entrusted to Juan Bautista Azopardo, a privateer of Maltese origin, who was supported by two French privateers: Hipólito Bouchard and Angel Hubac. On February 10, 1811, three of the patriot ships set sail from Buenos Aires and headed towards the Paraná River. On March 2, the patriot squadron was intercepted by a powerful royalist squadron. In the fierce combat that took place, numerical and training superiority prevailed. Aboard the "25 de Mayo", 41 crew members out of a total of 50 on board were injured or killed. To the dismay of the patriots, the first Argentine naval squadron was captured and towed to Montevideo, where after being repaired, the ships were incorporated into the royalist fleet (1)

Phoenix Bird

On July 7, a royalist squadron bombed Buenos Aires, although not without being punished. Bouchard, who was in charge of a gunboat armed with a solitary 18-pounder cannon, went out in search of the royalist ships, managed to inflict serious damage on one of them, causing the enemy to retreat. As a result of this attack; The patriot government equipped a second squadron consisting of the schooners "Nuestra Señora del Carmen" and "Santo Domingo", the ketch "Hiena" and four smaller boats. The royalist fleet reappeared again off Buenos Aires on August 19, but when Bouchard directed his ships towards it, the enemy withdrew and tried, ineffectively, to bombard Buenos Aires from a safe distance. On October 20, 1811, the authorities of Buenos Aires and Montevideo concluded an armistice that provided for the cessation of hostilities and the end of the blockade. While the national government disarmed its flotilla, the royalists violated the armistice and proceeded to bomb towns on the Argentine coast with impunity, attacking commercial ships at will. This in turn motivated the creation of the third Argentine naval squadron, which was organized by an Irish merchant captain; Buenos Aires resident William Brown, who is very rightly considered the father of the Argentine navy. This squadron was made up of a frigate, four corvettes, a brig, five schooners and other smaller ships. The officers were mostly foreigners, but soon a growing number of Creoles joined the fleet. (2)

 
San Nicolás Battle

In May 1814 Brown defeated the royalist fleet that once dominated the Rio de la Plata. This triumph in turn made possible the blockade and subsequent taking of Montevideo. This magnificent victory deprived Spain of the only base of operations it had in South America and granted control of the waters to the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Furthermore, in order to harass and destroy Spanish trade in the region, the government of Buenos Aires began to grant letters of marque to foreign privateers, among whom those of American nationality predominated. The exact number of these privateers is unknown, although it is known that one of these privateer ships was active in 1815, 4 in 1816, 23 in 1819, 10 in 1820 and two in 1821. In 1815 the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata was the only Spanish American nation that the royalists had not managed to subjugate. In Spain, a powerful expedition was organized that would be commanded by General Pablo de Morillo who had been assigned the task of taking Buenos Aires, but the loss of Montevideo forced Spain to consider its strategy and Morillo's expedition was dispatched towards New Granada, the current Republic of Colombia.(3)

Expedition to the Pacific

In 1816 Brown led an Argentine squadron on a cruise to the Pacific. These ships blockaded Lima and Guayaquil, captured California and hit Spanish maritime trade vigorously. The frigate "La Argentina", commanded by Hipólito Bouchard that was part of this flotilla, separated from the other ships and was the first Argentine flag ship to circumnavigate the world. (4)

A Chilean naval historian describes the outcome of Brown's cruise in the following terms:

"This expedition was the only maritime activity that the Argentines carried out in the Pacific, and to tell the truth, it had magnificent results. As Worcester points out, since the arrival of Brown, Spanish maritime trade was halted. Marco del Pont not only feared the attack through the Cordillera, but he was convinced that another patriot division would attack him by sea. San Martín, for his part, circulated rumors that an expedition was being prepared in Buenos Aires that would attack Concepción and San Vicente with the aim of later invading Chile." (5) 

War against Brazil: 1825-1828

At the end of the wars of independence, the ARA was reduced to a minimum and most of its ships were sold to private shipowners. In 1825, when the war with Brazil broke out, the Argentine fleet consisted of four frigates, two corvettes and 12 gunboats built in Bajo, on the banks of Buenos Aires and armed with old 24-piece pieces taken from the fort of that city. Command of the fleet was again entrusted to Brown. In direct contrast, the fleet of the Brazilian Empire, manned by a plethora of high-ranking English officers and subordinates, veterans of the Napoleonic wars; It had 108 warships, of which half were larger units (frigates, corvettes, brigs) and the rest were gunboats and schooners armed in war of various types and sizes. In a rapid series of battles, the Argentine navy managed to defeat the powerful imperial fleet, and although the latter blocked Buenos Aires, the lines of communication between the United Provinces and the Eastern Band of Uruguay, where the Argentine army was located, They were never cut off or even affected. On the other hand, despite the notorious lack of resources and the immense numerical superiority of the enemy, between 1825 and 127 the Argentine navy managed to destroy or capture more than 50 Brazilian warships, many of which were incorporated into the navy. national and employed with great energy and great skill against their former owners. In addition, Argentine warships and corsairs from Buenos Aires captured 445 Brazilian merchant ships (6)

The Era of Rosas (1829-1852)-Fights for Argentine unification: 1852-1862

During the Rosas era (1829-52) the navy became essentially a riverine force, adequate enough to defeat the Uruguayan fleet in a series of battles throughout the year 1841, but not strong or modern enough to confront to the Anglo-French squadron sent to Plata in 1845. A maritime academy in which officers were trained operated until 1830, then naval cadets were assigned to fleet units. The Argentine navy would not enter the age of steam until 1851. The two nation states that emerged in Argentina after the overthrow of Rosas in 1852 established squadrons equipped with war-armed steam merchant vessels, most of which would be incorporated into the national navy after the Argentine reunification that occurs as a result of the Battle of Pavón. However, by mid-1865, the fleet was reduced to a few vessels in service, the rest having been reduced to pontoon status or serving as storage hulls. The navy did not have a land infrastructure, naval bases or even warships themselves. It was painfully evident that the navy had not experienced adequate development, not only in comparison to the fleets of the great powers, but also in comparison to the fleets of neighboring countries such as Brazil, Chile or Paraguay.

The War with Paraguay (1865-1870)

When the Paraguayan War broke out, the Argentine navy was reduced to a handful of armed merchant steamers, sailing cutters and old hulls that served as floating stores of material. There was no infrastructure on land, nor training centers for the training of personnel. Although during the war, the command of the allied armies was entrusted to the president of the Argentine Republic, Bartolomé Mitre, given the fact that among the allies, only Brazil had a navy worthy of the name, the Viscount of Tamandaré was placed in charge. charge of naval operations. The participation of the Argentine navy in this conflict, due to lack of suitable material, was reduced mainly to transportation and logistical support missions. (7)


 
Crew of the Steamship "25 de Mayo", captured in Corrientes, beginning the Argentine intervention in the Paraguayan War

Development of Institutes and land infrastructure: 1872-1902

The first steps on the long road towards modernization and expansion would be taken during the presidency of Domingo F. Sarmiento (1868-74). A figure of extraordinary creativity, whom North American historian Hubert Herring described as "Possibly the only practical genius to emerge from Spanish America," Sarmiento devoted considerable time and thought to the importance of naval power for communications and defense. . Therefore, when Major Clodomiro Uturbey, a graduate of the Spanish Naval Academy, proposed the creation of a similar establishment in Argentina, Sarmiento gave his support to this initiative. The necessary legislation was promulgated on October 2, 1872 and three days later the Naval Military School (ENM) was officially established aboard the steamship "General Brown", where it operated until 1877, when as a result of the "gabanes mutiny", The government ordered the closure of the ENM, although this measure did not interrupt the "curriculum" of the cadets who were simply transferred to various units of the navy until the ENM was transferred to a new headquarters in the heart of Buenos Aires. The number of cadets in the ENM grew gradually: 15 in 1872, 50 in 1883 and would exceed the figure of 70 in 1887 although the true growth would not occur until 1893, when the ENM was transferred again, this time to Juan's former residence Manuel de Rosas in Palermo, previously used by the Military College of the Nation. The cadet corps began to grow rapidly from then on: 77 in 1895, 88 in 1896, 110 in 1897 and 140 in 1898 (8)

Initially, the course of study at the ENM lasted six semesters. The first included geometry, rectilinear trigonometry, drawing, foreign languages, ballistics and general education. Spatial geometry, physics, naval astronomy and other academic subjects were studied in subsequent semesters, while practical teaching similarly progressed from the duties of a private seaman to those of a helmsman, from piloting small vessels to the duties and responsibilities of an officer. The later semesters emphasized the teaching of shipbuilding techniques, steam propulsion, international law, naval gunnery, and history. The cadets were then assigned to warships in service on the Patagonian coasts and the recently graduated midshipmen were assigned to a flotilla of sailing cutters that patrolled those latitudes, thus acquiring valuable experience. Long-duration trans-oceanic voyages began in the early 1880s, when the ENM received a new steam corvette specially designed as a training ship, we refer to the corvette "La Argentina". At the end of the 1890s this unit would be replaced by the ARA frigate "Sarmiento", a 2800-ton displacement unit, which in turn inaugurated the era of circumnavigation of the world. At the end of the 19th century, the prestige and efficiency of the ENM transcended the country's borders, and was fully recognized abroad, which is why students from neighboring countries competed in the entrance exams to this institution. (9)

In 1875, the School of Apprentice-Sailors was created aboard the boat "Vanguardia", and the following year, a reformatory for young people was established aboard the pontoon "General Paz", designated "Correccional de Menores", although the practice of sentencing young offenders of the penal code to serve in the army was abandoned soon after. In its replacement, the School of Cabins was established aboard the boat "Cabo de Hornos", a unit that during the period 1879-1884 patrolled the Patagonian coasts until it was removed from service, and replaced by the training ship "La Argentina". The Artillery School was established aboard the monitor "El Plata" in 1877 and the Artillery Apprentice School, where cannon corporals were trained, operated aboard various units since its creation in 1881. Firefighters, machinists and electricians received training at the School of Navy Mechanics, which existed under various names since 1880. Finally, the Torpedo School was established in 1883, aboard a ship incorporated at that time, the ARA torpedo ram "Maipú". (10)

In January 1879, the Central Hydrography Office (OCH) was established, which would be responsible for exploring and charting the coasts and waterways, as well as the construction of lighthouses and beacons. In January 1881, the newly created Naval Observatory was attached to the OCH. In this way, the ARA obtained a valuable wealth of information regarding the Argentine interior rivers and the Patagonian coasts. (11)

As can be seen, the ARA placed special emphasis on the training of officers and junior personnel. In 1883, the ARA had a strength of 2,000 men, which included 1,503 sailors, 320 officers (including 48 cadets from the engineering branch) and 133 ensigns and cadets. During the struggles for national reunification and through the Paraguayan War, the ARA hired Argentine and foreign merchant sailors to complete some of the crews of its ships. The services of Argentine merchant ships were also contracted, including their crews for quarantine tasks and logistical support missions. During the 1880s-1890s the ARA experienced a shortage of specialists and machine personnel, so a substantial number of foreign specialists were hired. The naval ranking of 1891 revealed that of a total of 83 engineering officers, 32 were foreigners. In 1897, of a total of 155 officers in this branch, 97 were natives of the country, and the rest were foreigners. As the fleet grew in number, and the ships that were added were invariably of greater tonnage and technically more advanced than their predecessors, the need to increase personnel became apparent. For example, the four "Garibaldi" class battleship cruisers in the late 1890s required an average of 25 officers and 440 men per unit, a total of 109 officers and 1,636 crew. In 1902 the ARA had a strength of 8,336 men, a figure that included 327 line officers, 297 officer-engineers, 7,760 sailors and 450 marines. The growing importance of the navy was tacitly recognized on March 15, 1898, when the navy obtained the status of an independent force, that is, it no longer depended on the Ministry of War and Navy. From now on, it would be regulated by the Ministry of the Navy. (12)

Stations and bases

As the ARA increased its fleet and the ships added were increasingly larger, the ARA had to establish a network of naval stations and bases throughout the republic. Although we must deal with the expansion of the fleet separately, we must mention that the first modern units incorporated were shallow draft ships that could anchor in Rio de la Plata or in the Zárate naval base, but as fleet units were added increased tonnage the need for a deep water port became apparent. The town of Punta Alta, in the south of the Province of Buenos Aires was selected for said installation. A famous Italian engineer, Luigi Luiggi, was assigned to design the plans. Work began in 1898, and in July the first three coastal artillery batteries intended to protect the future base had already been placed. Upon completion of the works, in 1902 this strategic port, called Puerto Militar, would emerge as the largest naval base in South America, with enough space to house 20 "Garibaldi" class battleship cruisers. The facilities covered an area of 3000 hectares. A strategic railway connected the base with the city of Bahía Blanca, while batteries of cannons and coastal howitzers protected it against the eventuality of a naval attack. (13)

Coastal Artillery Corps

Coastal artillery did not receive special attention until the 1870s. Until 1879, coastal defense had been the responsibility of the army, whose Plaza Artillery Battalion garrisoned the island of Martín García. The Coastal Artillery Corps, established on November 15, 1879 under the orders of Lieutenant Colonel Emilio Sellstrom, former professor of ballistics at the ENM and superlative engineer. The Coastal Artillery Corps also provided marine infantry and protection forces, but the only existing fortifications were those of Martín García. During the Paraguayan War, the Ministry of War had ordered the construction of five barbettes of material that would mount 36 pieces of artillery, but in mid-1866 only 18 cannons had been installed, and even these were archaic relics inherited from the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and low caliber. During Sarmiento's government, the first modern artillery pieces: 4 381 mm Rodmans and six 254 mm Parrotts were placed on the island. In 1877 these guns were complemented by a battery of 177 mm (7 in) Armstrong pieces that fired 150-pound anti-armor grenades, giving Martín García a true strategic capability. In the mid-1880s, Martín García's cannons and other installations were already outdated, since models with greater penetration capacity and greater range had appeared. The ARA selected the Krupp mod. 1887 240 mm L.35 as regulatory equipment for its batteries, and pieces of this type were located in Martín García, the Zárate Naval Arsenal and in Puerto Militar. In 1899 they would be complemented with three Krupp mod howitzer batteries. 1899 280mm L.11. Meanwhile, the constant tension with Chile led to an expansion of the ARA, whose fleet would be in 1898 the most powerful and best equipped in South America. (14)

1. Rauch, George , Conflict in the Southern Cone; the Argentine Military and the Boundary Dispute with Chile, 1870-1902 (Praeger (Wesport, Conecticut and London, 1999).pag. 101-102
2. Rauch, Conflict in the Southern Cone..Ibid pag.102-103
3. Iid, pag. 103-104
4. Iid pag.104
5. Lopez Urrutia, Carlos, Historia de la Marina de Chile (Editorial Andres Bello, Santiago de Chile, 1969) pag. 26
6. Baldrich, Amadeo J, Historia de la guerra del Brasil: Contribucion al estudio razonado de la historia militar argentina (Imprenta La Harlem, Buenos Aires, 1905) pag.258-70, Rauch, op cit, pag. 104
7. Rauch, op cit, pag 104-105
8. Burzio Humberto, Armada Nacional: Reseña Historica de su origen y desarrollo orgánico (Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, Serie B, No 1, Buenos Aires, 1960) pag.160 -161, Burzio, Humberto, Historia de la Escuela Naval Militar (Departamento de Estudios Historicos Navales, Serie B. 1972, Buenos Aires, 3 vols., 1972) I; 246-248,320-321, 352-353, Rauch, op cit, pag.115-116
9. Burzio, Historia de la Escuela Naval Militar, I: 236-27 ,337-338, 367.
10. Rauch, op cit, pag.115-116
11. Burzio, Armada nacional, pag.1590160, Rauch op cit, pag. 117
12. Burzio, Historia de la Escuela Naval Militar;II: 458-459, 767-
13. Rauch, p cit, pag. 117. Rauch, op it, pag.116-1177
14. Triado, Juan Enrique, Historia de la Base Naval Puerto Belgrano (Instituto de Publicaciones Navales, Centro Naval, Buenos Aires, 1992) pag.67-8, Rauch pag.117118

Author: André Marois

Independence War: The Schooner "Constitución" goes as Corsair to the Pacific

The schooner "Constitución" and the preparations to go to the Pacific (1814/15)

The "Constitución" was a medium schooner, similar to the one in the image. It was American-made, but its owner was an Italian living in Chile (Andres Barrios or Andrea Bario), who leased it to the United Provinces when the campaign against Montevideo ended. On the basis of this small ship, preparations for the Pacific Expedition began. Unfortunately, the ship was wrecked in Antarctica and there were no survivors.




After the disaster of Rancagua and the fall of Chile into the hands of the royalists, many patriots from Santiago emigrated to Mendoza, capital of the Cuyo governorate in Argentina, the last emancipated territory. Among them was the priest Julián Uribe, member of the Governing Board and ally of the Carrera brothers.

José Miguel Carrera's attitude forced General José de San Martín, who already governed Cuyo and was working on the formation of the army of the Andes, to disarm his followers and send them to the city of Buenos Aires, Uribe among them. Upon his arrival, they were helped by Carlos María de Alvear, who shortly assumed the position of Supreme Director of the United Provinces. While Carrera was gaining support to be recognized as the government of Chile and obtaining resources to mount an expedition to Coquimbo and thus restart the fight, the priest Julián Uribe proposed a plan to attack the Spanish in Chile, harassing Spanish navigation and commerce along the way. throughout Valparaíso, Coquimbo, Atacama, Arequipa, El Callao and Guayaquil.

The project had been outlined by Andrés Barrios. After Brown's successful 1814 Naval Campaign on Montevideo, Barrios transported 200 soldiers with the Constitution free of charge from that plaza to Buenos Aires. Subsequently, Barrios lent the Constitution to the state on the condition that he be given only $4,000 despite the fact that its value was $6,200, of which Brown recorded: "this individual [Barrios] donated his ship and personal services for an incident so interesting to the country, for a tiny amount". Since of the $4,000, "he had only received $1,950 with the guarantee of Miguel de Irigoyen," Barrios returned the money and recovered the ship.

The schooner or ketch Constitución was of North American origin, displaced 235 tons and was 28 m long, 8.75 m wide, 5.60 m deep and 2.90 m medium draft. It belonged to the patriot Andrés Barrios (Andrea Bari), originally from Pisa, who after residing in Concepción had settled in Buenos Aires. Barrios was also the shipowner and captain of the Carmen, with which he had been trading for at least fifteen years between Chile and Buenos Aires.

After seeing the sale of the Constitution to the state frustrated, in mid-1815 Barrios offered it to be used for privateering, a proposal that was accepted on May 23. Finally, Uribe raised among his compatriots the necessary funds to join Barrios in the ownership of the ship and requested the support of the commander of the Argentine squadron, Guillermo Brown, who agreed to join with the frigate Hércules (which had been gifted to him for his services. ) and convinced the authorities to provide the brig Trinidad.

In order to adapt it for the campaign and according to its owner Commander Andrés Barrios, "its winery has been subdivided into several parts and various other works have been carried out." The recruited crew numbered a hundred men, mainly Chileans but also Irish, North Americans, Swedes, Italians and English.

After the fall of Alvear, while José Miguel Carrera left for the United States, Uribe, with the support of Brown, continued with his project. On September 20, 1815, Andrés Barrios received from the government the corresponding Patent of Marquee of the PURP No. 27, with guarantee from Miguel de Irigoyen. Initially, Barrios was listed as commander, but he was replaced at the last minute by Marine Lieutenant Colonel Oliverio Russell, Brown's right-hand man at the Battle of Montevideo.

The government provided the necessary weapons and supplies for the privateering campaign, but also to recruit and arm a patriot army in Chile. The List of the artillery, sets of weapons, ammunition and other war supplies that by Superior Order have been delivered to the Commander of the Constitución Andrés Barrios detailed, among other things, the provision of 1 bronze cannon of 16, 2 iron cannons of 8 and 4 cannons of 4, 210 jars of shrapnel, 100 bullets of 16, 200 of 8, 400 of 4, 30 crowbars of 16, 12 quintals of gunpowder, 2 quintals of match rope, 1000 cartridges of rifle, 100 flintlock stones for pistol, 50 rifle stones, etc. The quantity and weight of what was loaded was so considerable that it caused great difficulties for the ship during its journey and probably influenced its tragic end.

To give Uribe freedom of action, the instructions were broad: harass, seize or set fire to any ship flying the Spanish flag, blockade Spanish places in the Pacific, acquire information about the general situation in Chile and Peru and about the land and naval forces there. possessed by the royalists and patriots, to know the opinion of the insurgents and to encourage and support their activities and operations, to clandestinely introduce revolutionary proclamations and writings, etc.

In a few months the fleet was ready. It was made up of the frigate Hércules, commanded by Brown's brother-in-law Walter Dawes Chitty, the brig or Sumaca Trinidad under the command of Miguel Brown, and the brig Halcón, commanded by Captain Hipólito Bouchard, whose chief of arms was the future head of state of Chile, Ramón Freire. and the schooner Constitución, also known as Uribe, commanded by Oliver Russell.

We already saw the rest. The Constitution sank near the Shetland Islands when she sought to access the Pacific in the midst of a fierce storm. Uribe, Rusell, Barrios and the entire crew died.



El Corsario del Plata

Independence War: The Deception of Lamadrid

The cunning of Lamadrid

General Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid was a brave man who was said to have more wounds on his body than holes in an English lace.
On May 20, 1817, he was marching on Charcas with the intention of seizing the city, when a patrol intercepted a message from the Governor of Potosí to President Vivero, informing him that he was sending a reinforcement of 300 men.
Shortly after, when going up the Cachimayo slope, Captain Lugones, head of the patriot vanguard, warned that a large party of horsemen was advancing along the same path, but in the opposite direction to the one they were taking.


General Araoz de Lamadrid


Aware of the case, the then sergeant major Lamadrid called a halt and went ahead to meet the captain, who upon arrival told him:
—There is no doubt, my elder, they are Goths (Spaniards).
-Better. Do you see, captain, that force? Well, know that in a few minutes it will be ours without costing us a shot or a drop of blood,” he told her, as he continued walking.
And he kept advancing until very close to the royalists to whom he shouted:
"Hey, comrades! We are the help sent by the Governor of Potosí."
Convinced, the Spanish officers advanced about 100 meters from their troops to where the Argentines were and one of them approached the famous Tucuman smiling, saying:
— How are you doing, Ostria? It's been ages since I last saw you!
"I am not Ostria," replied Lamadrid.
—Excuse me, but the resemblance is so great!
"Who is your commander?" Colonel López, head of the royalists, then intervened. Lamadrid, seeing that the Captain
Lugones and his men surrounded the king's officers, he answered:
—The commander is Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid here, and you are talking to him, but keep talking calmly, because your life is at stake.
As the Spaniards saw that they were in the power of the audacious Argentine, they continued the march in the midst of their captors followed by the troops that, moments later, found themselves surrounded by the bulk of Lamadrid's forces.

Argentine Army: Brown and Black Regiment

Brown and Black Regiment

The Regiment of Brown and Black (Pardos y Morenos) was a military unit of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata that participated in most of the military campaigns of the Argentine War of Independence until its dissolution in 1816 due to the Battle of Viluma. It was made up of soldiers from the castes of free mulattoes and freed blacks.

Uniform
The troops wore the uniform of the regiment consisting of a galley with a plume. Light blue jacket with bronze buttons and black collar and sleeves. Red sash and white pants with boots. They carried saber or flintlock rifle with bayonet. NCOs wore a red jacket with a white collar and sleeves.



May Revolution
Immediately after the May Revolution, on May 29, 1810, the First Government Junta of the nascent United Provinces of the Río de la Plata organized by decree the military units of Buenos Aires, raising veteran regiments of 1,116 squares to battalions of existing urban paid infantry militias. The Caste Battalion was also elevated to a Caste Regiment, but maintained its militia status.



By a decree issued on June 8, 1810, the Junta issued an order for the integration of the indigenous native companies that constituted the Battalion of Castes. This integration involved their incorporation into Regiments No. 2 Patricios (Patricians) and No. 3 Arribeños (Upstreamers), under the command of their existing officers. Consequently, the Regiment of Castas underwent a transformation and came to be recognized as the Pardos y Morenos (Brown and Black) Regiment. On June 19, 1810, the Junta appointed Martín Galain (1) as the lieutenant colonel and Miguel Estanislao Soler as the sergeant major of the regiment. (2)

A subsequent decree dated February 10, 1811, resulted in the renaming of the unit as the Regiment of Pardos y Morenos Patricios de Buenos Aires. Furthermore, another decree issued on October 4, 1811, bestowed upon the regiment the distinction of being classified as a veteran force. (3)



First Expedition to the Alto PerúOn June 14, the Junta issued an instruction to Juan José Castelli, a member, tasking him with assembling forces for the purpose of embarking on a military campaign to the interior provinces of the viceroyalty. This directive aimed to fulfill the mandate outlined in the Cabildo de Buenos Aires on May 25, which involved the formation of an army comprising 1,150 soldiers. Within this force were included 2 companies belonging to the Regiment of Pardos y Morenos.4 During its era, this assembled army was referred to as the Army of Peru or the Auxiliary Army of the Interior Provinces, but it is currently recognized more prominently as the Army of the North. The two caste companies advanced alongside the larger army through the regions of northern Argentina and Upper Peru, ultimately reaching the border of the Viceroyalty of Peru. On June 20, 1811, they actively participated in the pivotal Battle of Huaqui:

The officers belonging to the Pardos and Morenos Patricios companies from that particular capital city have not only conducted themselves with the customary honor displayed in such situations during the action, but they have also subsequently exhibited a profound demonstration of their resilience in the face of adversity. Their unwavering subordination, dedication to duty, and evident commitment to serving their country have been undeniable. It is my duty to strongly commend Your Excellency to acknowledge their virtues as an act of justice and as a gesture of gratitude that they rightfully merit. Letter to the Junta, de Antonio González Balcarce, July 31th, 1811.

After the defeat at Huaqui, the brown and brown companies withdrew with the army to Jujuy, where it was reorganized by the new commander Manuel Belgrano in 1812.




Liberation Expedition to Paraguay
On September 23, 1810, a contingent comprising 200 soldiers sourced from five infantry companies within the Buenos Aires garrison congregated at the encampment of San Nicolás de los Arroyos, among whom was a member with a brown complexion. This assembled force served as the nucleus for the Liberation Expedition to Paraguay, which was under the command of Manuel Belgrano. (5)

As they progressed through the Argentine Mesopotamia, the Brown (Pardos) Company operated within the 2nd Division, identifiable by its blue flag. Following the successful crossing of the Paraná River in the Misiones region, this company led the vanguard division and played an active role in the significant Battle of Paraguarí on January 19, 1811, as well as the consequential Battle of Tacuarí on March 9, 1811. Subsequent to the latter defeat, Belgrano retraced his steps across the Paraná River and established his headquarters in Candelaria. On March 21, 1811, he provided a comprehensive assessment of his forces, revealing that the Brown Company consisted of a captain, a lieutenant, three corporals, and a complement of 33 soldiers.

First Campaign to the Banda Oriental


In February 1811, 441 brown and brown soldiers sent from Buenos Aires under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Martín Galain, the 6th commander of the Brown and Brown Regiment, stationed themselves in Entre Ríos, on the western bank of the Uruguay River, with the mission of protect Belgrano's withdrawal from Paraguay and move the Banda Oriental. Those forces were in Santa Fe on January 9, 1811.
On February 28, 1811, the Creoles of the Banda Oriental insurrectioned against the viceroy, a fact known as the Grito de Asencio. Belgrano ordered Galain to cross the Uruguay River and take possession of Mercedes and Santo Domingo Soriano, who had declared themselves in favor of the Junta, for which he sent Soler with 50 brown and brown soldiers to position themselves in that town.7 A royalist squadron under the command of Juan Ángel Michelena entered the Negro River with 800 soldiers and intimated Soler's surrender. On April 4, 1811, the Combate de Soriano took place, which culminated in the triumph of Soler.
The revolutionary army under the command of Belgrano, which was returning from the Intendance of Paraguay and the Missions, crossed Mesopotamia and crossed the Uruguay River in Entre Ríos towards the Banda Oriental, where in April 1811 it established its headquarters in Mercedes:8 There the troops de Belgrano met with the eastern militias and the forces commanded by Rondeau.
The army advanced towards Montevideo and in the Second Division commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Agustín Sosa there were 450 men from the Pardos y Morenos Regiment. At the end of April Belgrano was replaced by Rondeau. After the triumph of José Artigas in the Battle of Las Piedras, the First Siege of Montevideo began on May 21, 1811, Rondeau arriving with the bulk of the troops on June 1 (including the brown and brown ones). On July 15, 1811, some soldiers from the regiment participated as volunteers in the Assault on the Isla de las Ratas.


 
Charge of the Brown and Blacks (Taringa) 

After the Portuguese invasion of July 1811, the siege of Montevideo was lifted on October 12 and an armistice was signed on October 21 with Viceroy Francisco Javier de Elío. Fulfilling the agreement, the Buenos Aires troops evacuated eastern soil in December of that year and returned to Buenos Aires, while other forces crossed the Uruguay River, camping in Entre Ríos, the same as a large part of the people who carried out the eastern Exodus.

Second Campaign to the Banda Oriental
Since the Portuguese had not withdrawn from the Banda Oriental, and the hostilities with the royalists of Montevideo had resumed, in April 1812 the First Triumvirate demanded the immediate Portuguese withdrawal under threat of war. The Triumvirate sent Artigas 20,000 pesos led by Ventura Vázquez and the Regiment No. 6 of Pardos y Morenos under the command of Soler and made him head of operations. The Regiment of Pardos y Morenos had taken No. 6 on January 6, 1812, this number previously belonging to a regiment that participated in the expedition to Upper Peru and was reduced to a battalion.
On April 7, Artigas crossed the Uruguay River, returning to the Banda Oriental together with the Pardos y Morenos Regiment, highlighting parties towards the Cuareim, Negro and Tacuarembó rivers. On April 13, the Itapebí Grande Combat against the Portuguese took place, in which 400 infants from the Pardos y Morenos Regiment under the command of Soler participated.9 10 A new Portuguese attack forced Artigas' forces to cross the Uruguay River towards Between rivers.
In April 1812 the Triumvirate sent one of its members, Manuel de Sarratea, to take command of the army installed in Entre Ríos, sharpening the disagreements with Artigas. Among the forces that Sarratea separated from the Artigas camp at the end of 1812 was the Regiment No. 6 of Pardos y Morenos. When Sarratea went to Concepción del Uruguay, Soler stayed for a while in Salto Chico with his regiment.
In September 1812 the vanguard of Sarratea's army, commanded by Rondeau, crossed the Uruguay River and began the march on Montevideo, including the regiment Regiment No. 6 with 600 men. On October 20, 1812, the patriot army began the Second Siege of Montevideo. The Regiment No. 6 participated in an outstanding way in the Battle of Cerrito on December 31, 1812, having 43 dead and 65 wounded. For this triumph, on April 21, 1813, Soler received the orders of colonel of the Regiment No. 6 of Pardos y Morenos.
On March 17, 1814, 23 soldiers of the regiment commanded by second lieutenant Luis Antonio Frutos, participated in the capture of the Martín García island. The regiment remained besieging Montevideo until the fall of the plaza on May 23, 1814 at the hands of Carlos María de Alvear, being the first to enter the Citadel. In February 1815 part of the directorial troops evacuated Montevideo, including the brown and brown ones, being Soler appointed governor of that place on August 25, 1814, retaining the regiment headquarters. He served from August 1814 to February 25, 1815, when the troops of the United Provinces abandoned Montevideo, which remained in the hands of the Eastern militias of Artigas. In Buenos Aires the regiment was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Mariano Díaz. On September 5, 1816, Brigadier Soler was appointed master barracks and major general of the Army of the Andes.

Second Campaign to Alto Perú (1812-1813). The triangles represent the battles: blue for the independence victories (Exodus from Jujuy, Tucumán and Salta) and red for the royalist victories (Vilcapugio and Ayohuma).

Second Expedition to Alto Perú
When Belgrano took command of the Army of the North in April 1812, the Pardos y Morenos Corps under the command of Lieutenant Colonel José Superí, with 305 combatants, was in it.11 On December 10, 1812, reinforcements were received from Buenos Aires, between They were 70 or 80 brown and brown who joined the Corps of Castas, becoming the Battalion of Castas, under the command of Superí.
The battalion participated in the Combate de las Piedras on September 3, 1812, with 100 men, and in the Battle of Tucumán on September 24, 1812, commanding Superí one of the infantry columns. He also participated in the Battle of Salta on September 20, 1813.
After the defeat of Vilcapugio on October 1, 1813, Belgrano established his camp in Macha, trying to reorganize the army, which included 198 pardos and morenos under the command of Superí, but was defeated in the Battle of Ayohuma on November 14, 1813. , having to retrograde to Jujuy.

Third Campaign to Upper Peru (1815). The red triangle represents the only important battle of it, the royalist victory at Sipe-Sipe.

Third Expedition to Alto Perú
On August 27, 1814, Regiment No. 6 (together with No. 2 and No. 9) was assigned to join the Auxiliary Army of Peru, continuing under Díaz's command since Soler's appointment as governor of Montevideo. The two battalions of the regiment traveled in 8 ships from the port of San Pedro, arriving in Santa Fe in the second week of September 1814. On September 21 they left Santa Fe, but on the way 126 men deserted, taking 42 rifles with them. They arrived at San Miguel de Tucumán on November 21, reduced to 549 soldiers and officers. In the first days of January 1815 the regiment moved to Huacalera in the Humahuaca ravine, where it arrived on January 16, remaining until March 20, 1815, when it headed for San Miguel de Chapaca. Arriving in Potosí on May 18, it continued on June 15 towards Yocaya and on August 16 the forces remained in the towns of Leñas, Culta and Sopollo, to leave for Ayohuma on September 17.
On October 2, 1815, Rondeau ordered Regiment No. 6 to go to Chayanta. On November 27, it was found in Sipe Sipe, where the Auxiliary Army was defeated on November 29, 1815 in the Battle of Viluma. Regiment No. 6 was in the reserve, but was involved in the escape of the Argentine infantry after the defeat, leaving many prisoners and many others dispersed.12
The dispersed met with the other troops in Yotala, retreating towards Tupiza and then towards Huacalera in the Humahuaca ravine, to later continue to Tucumán. On August 7, 1816, in Trancas, Rondeau was displaced and replaced by Manuel Belgrano at the head of the Army of the North. The army established itself in the Citadel of Tucumán, where it arrived on August 28. Belgrano distributed the remains of Regiment No. 6 between regiments No. 3 and No. 9, dissolving it.



Legacy
The 8 Mechanized Infantry Regiment (RIMec 8) based in Comodoro Rivadavia is considered heir to the history of the Brown and Black Regiment. At its headquarters there is a statue in homage to the soldier Falucho, an Afro-American who participated in the War of Independence in Peru in the Río de la Plata Regiment.

 
Mechanized Infantry Regiment 8, heir to that Brown and Black Regiment that crossed the Andes with San Martín. (Armando Fernández)  


References

1. Biografías argentinas y sudamericanas. Volumen 2, pág. 689. Autor: Jacinto R. Yaben. Editor: Editorial "Metrópolis"
2. Biografía del brigadier argentino don Miguel Estanislao Soler. pág. 15. Autor: Pedro Lacasa. Editor: Imprenta "Constitución", 1854
3. Historia de la nación argentina: (desde los orígenes hasta la organización definitiva en 1862). Volumen 5, Parte 2, pág. 570. Autores: Academia Nacional de la Historia (Argentina), Ricardo Levene. Editor: Librería y editorial "El Ateneo", 1941
4. Archivo general de la República Argentina: Publicacion dirigida por Adolfo P. Carranza. Publicado por G. Kraft, 1894. pág. 78 y 79
5. Noticias históricas de la República Argentina: Obra póstuma. Escrito por Ignacio Nuñez, Ignacio Benito Nuñez, Julio Núñez. Pág. 173. Edition: 2. Publicado por Guillermo Kraft, 1898
6. Historia de Belgrano y de la independencia argentina, Volumen 1, pág. 375. Volúmenes 109-112 de Serie del siglo y medio. Autor: Bartolomé Mitre. Editor: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1967
7. Biografías argentinas y sudamericanas, Volumen 1, pág. 555. Autor: Jacinto R. Yaben. Editor: C. E. Escobar Tirado y D. E. Osorio Correa, 1938
8. Semblanza histórica del Ejército Argentino. Autor: Secretaría General de Ejército, Buenos Aires, 1981. pág. 29 y 30
9. El general Artigas y su época: Apuntes documentados para la historia oriental, Volumen 1. pp. 479. Autor: Justo Maeso. Editor: Tip. oriental de Peña y Roustan, 1885
10. Compendio de la historia de la República O. del Uruguay, Volúmenes 1-3. pp. 149-150. Autor: Isidoro De-María. Edición 7. Editor: Impr. "El siglo Ilustrado" de Turenne, Varzi y ca., 1895
11. Reestructuración del Ejército del Norte
12. Revista, Volumen 37, Números 432-437. Pág. 332. Autor: Círculo Militar (Buenos Aires, Argentina). Editor: Calle de Viamonte, 1937

Wikipedia